The aim of this thesis is to improve the therapeutic effect of the immunotherapy based on the synergy of TLR agonists with phagocytosis stimulating ligands. Furthermore, this thesis is focused on the information transfer to the specific immunity, as well as it pursues the study of the specific immunity relevance during cancer immunotherapy.

The aim of this thesis was to study how to increase effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy based on synergy of compounds stimulating phagocytosis and TLR agonist. Tumor microenvironment was modified by enzymes, which catalised conversion of lactate to pyruvate or acetate. It was monitored effect of enzymes on tumor size, survival of experimental mice and cytotoxicity on tumor cells.

Submitted by isabela.moljf@hotmail.com (isabela.moljf@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-09T15:18:14Z No. of bitstreams: 1 alyriateixeiradias.pdf: 4422674 bytes, checksum: 17c712ce8d943761e675c3a181c00e29 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-08-10T12:44:26Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 alyriateixeiradias.pdf: 4422674 bytes, checksum: 17c712ce8d943761e675c3a181c00e29 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T12:44:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 alyriateixeiradias.pdf: 4422674 bytes, checksum: 17c712ce8d943761e675c3a181c00e29 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-28 / A esclerose múltipla (EM) e o seu modelo animal de estudo, a encefalomielite autoimune experimental (EAE), são caracterizadas por neuroinflamação imunomediada e desmielinização no sistema nervoso central (SNC). Os tratamentos para a EM normalmente incluem o interferon-β (IFN-β) e destinam-se a reduzir o número de surtos e retardar a progressão da doença. No entanto, são apenas parcialmente eficazes, sugerindo a necessidade do desenvolvimento de novas alternativas terapêuticas. Os receptores toll like (TLRs) são receptores de reconhecimento de padrões do sistema imune inato e desempenham importante papel na iniciação de respostas inflamatórias e na indução da imunidade adaptativa. A sua participação na patogênese de doenças autoimunes têm sido estudada e foi também demonstrado que ligantes de TLRs podem suprimir a EAE. A genisteína é um fitoestrógeno obtido da soja com propriedades anti-inflamatórias. Alguns estudos mostraram seus efeitos benéficos na EAE e resultados promissores que sugerem potencial terapêutico na EM. Entretanto, os trabalhos realizados até o momento, utilizavam um protocolo de tratamento após o aparecimento dos sinais clínicos da doença e não abordavam a resposta imune inata. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho busca avaliar a modulação da resposta imune inata e a influência desta na resposta imune adaptativa, através dos TLRs, utilizando um tratamento com genisteína anterior ao aparecimento dos sinais clínicos da EAE, avaliando também os parâmetros no início do desenvolvimento da doença. Para isso, a EAE foi induzida em camundongos C57BL/6 fêmeas com o peptídeo MOG35-55 tratados ou não com genisteína. O tratamento com 200mg/kg de massa corporal por dia, via subcutânea, foi realizado do período -2 dias antes da indução até o dia +6 após a indução da EAE. Os parâmetros laboratoriais foram avaliados na medula espinhal no 7° dia pós indução e os sinais clínicos acompanhado s até o 21° dia pós indução. O tratamento com genisteína resultou em atraso no aparecimento e redução na pontuação dos sinais clínicos, concomitante à redução do infiltrado celular e da desmielinização da medula espinhal, reforçando seu potencial neuroprotetor em doenças autoimunes. Adicionalmente, foi observado aumento na intensidade mediana de fluorescência de TLR3 e TLR9 em macrófagos e células dendríticas e diminuição de TLR2 em células dendríticas, presentes na medula espinhal. A sinalização via TLR3 e TLR9 vêm sendo relacionada à maior produção de IFN-β em doenças autoimunes. De fato, o tratamento com genisteína aumentou a expressão relativa de RNAm para IFN-β na medula espinhal. Os níveis das citocinas próinflamatórias IL-6, IL-12p40 e da quimiocina CCL5 foram reduzidos. Além disso, foi observado diminuição na expressão dos fatores de transcrição RORγT e T-bet e aumento na produção da citocina TGF-β, sugerindo o estabelecimento de um ambiente imuno regulador. Estes resultados reforçam o potencial terapêutico da genisteína no tratamento da EAE e da EM, sugerindo que o seu uso, inclusive na forma de suplementação ou alimentação rica em soja, poderia se aliar a terapias já estabelecidas, melhorando o quadro clínico da doença e prevenindo novos surtos. / Multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), its animal model, are both characterized by immune-mediated neuroinflammation and demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS). The treatments for MS, including IFN-β, are intended to reduce the number of relapses and slow the progression of the disease. However, these treatments are only partially effective, suggesting the need to develop new therapies. The toll-like receptors (TLRs) are patterns-recognition receptors, of the innate immune system, that play important roles in the initiation of inflammatory responses and induction of adaptive immunity. Its role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases have been demonstrated and it was also shown that TLR ligands can suppress EAE. Genistein is a phytoestrogen obtained from soybeans with anti-inflammatory properties. Some studies showed beneficial effects on EAE treatment, suggesting therapeutic potential in MS. However, the work done to date, used a treatment protocol after the onset of clinical signs of the disease and did not address the innate immune response. In this context, the present work aims to evaluate the modulation of innate immune response, and its influence in the adaptive immune response, through the TLRs, using a treatment protocol prior the onset of the clinical signs of the EAE, by evaluating the parameters in the beginning of the development of the disease. EAE was induced in C57BL/6 females with MOG35-55 peptide. The animals were treated or not with 200mg/kg/day of genistein, subcutaneously, in the period between 2 days before induction and until the day 6 after induction of EAE. Laboratory parameters were evaluated in the spinal cord in the day 7 after induction and clinical signs monitored until day 21 after induction. Treatment with genistein resulted in delayed onset and reduced score of disease, concomitant with reduced cellular infiltration and demyelination in the spinal cord, reinforcing its neuroprotective potential in autoimmune diseases. Additionally, it was observed an increase in the median fluorescence intensity of TLR3 and TLR9 in macrophages and dendritic cells and decrease of TLR2 in dendritic cells in the spinal cord. The signaling via TLR3 and TLR9 is related to increase the production of IFN-β. In fact, treatment with genistein increases mRNA expression for IFN-β in the spinal cord. The levels of IL-6, IL-12p40 and CCL5 were reduced. Furthermore, the expression of ROR-γT and T-bet were decreased, and, together with increased production of TGF-β, suggest the development of a regulatory environment. These results heighten the therapeutic potential of genistein in the treatment of EAE and MS, suggesting that its use, including as a supplement or soy-enriched diet, could preventing new outbreaks.

L’arsenic inorganique est un contaminant environnemental, cancérogène pour l’homme, mais également un métalloïde étudié, aujourd’hui, dans le traitement de maladies inflammatoires chroniques. Il possède des propriétés immunosuppressives pouvant déréguler les mécanismes physiologiques de défense ou bloquer l’exacerbation de réponses inflammatoires chroniques. L’arsenic inorganique altère principalement les fonctions des lymphocytes T et des macrophages. En revanche, l’impact du métalloïde sur la physiologie des cellules dendritiques (DCs) est peu connu. Pourtant, ces cellules présentatrices d’antigène jouent un rôle fondamental dans les processus d’immunosurveillance et sont très impliquées dans la physiopathologie des maladies inflammatoires chroniques. Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de mon travail de thèse étaient d’étudier les effets de l’arsenic inorganique sur la différenciation et la maturation in vitro de DCs générées à partir de monocytes humains. Nos résultats démontrent principalement que des concentrations de métalloïde, compatibles avec les taux plasmatiques d’arsenic mesurés chez les individus exposés, répriment la capacité des DCs à sécréter différentes cytokines pro-inflammatoires jouant un rôle essentiel dans l’activation et la polarisation des lymphocytes T. En particulier, l’arsenic inhibe l’expression et la sécrétion de l’interleukine-12 par un mécanisme moléculaire impliquant le facteur de transcription Nrf2. Au total, ces travaux de thèse démontrent que l’arsenic inorganique possède des propriétés immunosuppressives sur la physiologie in vitro des DCs humaines. Cette immunotoxicité pourrait contribuer à la toxicité du métalloïde chez l’homme exposé par voie environnementale, et être prise en compte pour déterminer les effets de l’arsenic dans le traitement de certaines maladies inflammatoires chroniques / Inorganic arsenic is an environmental human carcinogen, but is also studied these days because of its potential effectiveness in curing chronic inflammatory disease. Indeed, this metalloid possesses immunosuppressive properties which can dysregulate physiological mechanisms involved in immune defense, or reduce inflammation associated with those inflammatory diseases. Inorganic arsenic is known mainly to alter functions of T cells and macrophages. However, it is unknown whether arsenic targets dendritic cells (DCs). Yet, this antigen presenting cells plays a major role in the immunosurveillance, and is involved in the physiopathology of chronic inflammatory diseases. So, the aim of my thesis work was to study the effects of inorganic arsenic on in vitro differenciation and maturation of dendritic cells from human monocytes. Our results mainly shows that concentrations corresponding to those measured in environmentally exposed people, inhibits DCs secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, which plays a major role in activation and polarization of T cells. Particularly, arsenic strongly impairs expression and secretion of interleukine 12 (IL-12) by an underlying molecular mechanism involving Nrf2. Finally, this work shows that inorganic arsenic has immunosuppressive properties on the physiology in vitro of human dendritic cells. Immunotoxicity may then contribute to the metalloid toxicity in environmentally exposed people. This element could be taken into account when determining arsenic effects in curing some chronic inflammatory diseases.

Os tecidos pulpar e periodontal são frequentemente agredidos por fatores ambientais como calor, trauma mecânico e micro-organismos, sendo estes considerados o fator etiológico principal das periodontopatias e periapicopatias. Dentre as células residentes desses tecidos, especial atenção tem sido dada ao papel dos fibroblastos no desenvolvimento da resposta imune. Fibroblastos são células que respondem à estímulos microbianos e existem evidências do papel de receptores do tipo Toll (TLR) no reconhecimento desses estímulos. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo principal avaliar o reconhecimento de Candida albicans por fibroblastos gengivais e pulpares. Para tal, fibroblastos isolados a partir de tecido gengival e pulpar de camundongos do grupo controle e deficientes de TLR2, CD14 e MyD88 foram avaliados quanto à expressão de TLRs e moléculas de superfície, resposta proliferativa e produção de citocinas (TGF-β, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-13 e IL-6), após a estimulação com agonistas de TLR2, TLR4 e C. albicans. Fibroblastos gengivais e pulpares, apesar de provenientes de tecidos diferentes, apresentaram características morfológicas semelhantes. Contudo, a cinética de crescimento dos fibroblastos gengivais deficientes de MyD88 foi mais lenta, e fibroblastos pulpares demoraram mais tempo para surgir a partir dos fragmentos de tecido. A ausência de TLR2 e da molécula adaptadora MyD88 não afetaram a produção de colágeno Tipo I pelos fibroblastos gengivais. Entretanto, fibroblastos deficientes de CD14 apresentaram baixa produção de colágeno. Ademais, os fibroblastos gengivais expressaram TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, assim como as moléculas de adesão ICAM-1 e CD44. A ausência de TLR2 e CD14 interferiu na resposta proliferativa de fibroblastos gengivais e pulpares, respectivamente. O reconhecimento de C. albicans por fibroblastos gengivais e pulpares modulou a produção das citocinas. A produção de TNF-α foi dependente da sinalização via MyD88, CD14 e TLR2, enquanto que a produção de IL-1β e IL-13 foi dependente de TLR2. / Pulpal and periapical tissue are frequently injured by heat, mechanical trauma and microorganisms, which are considered the main etiological factor of periodontal and endodontic diseases. Among these tissue resident cells, special attention has been given to fibroblasts in the immune response. Fibroblasts are cells that recognize pathogens through Toll like receptors (TLR). The aim of this study was to evaluate the recognition of Candida albicans by pulpal and gingival fibroblasts from TLR2, CD14, MyD88 knockout mice and control group mice. The results were analyzed concerning the expression of TLR(s) and surface molecules, proliferative response and citokynes production (TGF-β, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-13 e IL-6) after the cells stimulation with TLR2, TLR4 and C.albicans agonists. Gingival and Pulpal fibroblasts, even isolated from different tissue, showed morphological similarities; however, gingival fibroblast deficient of MyD88 show lower proliferative response and pulpa l fibroblasts needed more time to detach from tissue fragments. The production of Type I collagen was affected in gingival cells deficient of CD14. Gingival fibroblasts expressed TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and the adhesion molecules (ICAM-1 and CD44). The absence of TLR2 and CD14 interfered with the proliferative response of pulpal and gingival fibroblasts, respectively. The recognition of C. albicans by gingival and pulpal fibroblasts modulated the citokynes production. TNF-α production after the recognition of C. albicans was dependent from MyD88, CD14 and TLR2 molecules, whereas the production of IL-1β and IL-13 was dependent of TLR2.

Une reconnaissance appropriée des parasites est essentielle pour une réponse immunitaire efficace, assurant l'activation adéquate des mécanismes de défense immunitaire. Chez les vertébrés, il a été démontré que les gènes codant pour les récepteurs de l'immunité adaptative impliqués dans la reconnaissance des agents pathogènes sont soumis à une intense pression sélective. En revanche, beaucoup moins d’études se sont intéressées à la sélection agissant sur les récepteurs de l'immunité innée. Le but de cette thèse est de décrire la variabilité naturelle des gènes de l'immunité innée impliqués dans la détection des agents pathogènes chez les rongeurs et d’analyser les mécanismes responsables de leur évolution. Ce travail s’est focalisé principalement sur les rongeurs de la sous-famille des Murinae et de leur rôle potentiel en tant que réservoirs d’agents pathogènes dangereux pour l’Homme. Tout d´abord nous avons étudié la variabilité intraspécifique de cinq Toll-like récepteurs ciblant les bactéries (TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5 et TLR6) pour des lignées consanguines de souris domestiques issues d’une population sauvage de deux sous-espèces : Mus musculus domesticus (Mmd) et Mus musculus musculus (Mmm). Les souches consanguines constituent un outil adapté à l'étude de la variabilité des gènes immunitaires car elles confèrent une information sur les allèles présents dans les populations naturelles tout en bénéficiant de génotypes homozygotes. Les résultats les plus significatifs concernent la découverte d'un codon stop dans l'exon 2 du Tlr5 chez une lignée de Mmm et l’absence de variabilité du Tlr4 chez Mmd. A la suite de ces résultats, nous avons décidé de vérifier si l‘absence de polymorphisme du Tlr4 chez Mmd reflète une absence de variabilité dans les populations naturelles, ou si il s’agit plutôt d’un effet de l'échantillonnage ou des croisements ultérieurs. Nous avons donc séquencé le gène Tlr4 pour les deux sous-espèces provenant de la région du Paléarctique Occidentale (au total 39 Mmm et 62 Mmd) puis nous avons comparé ces résultats avec la variabilité génétique d’un gène mitochondrial (cytochrome b). Nous avons confirmé notre prédiction : la variabilité de Tlr4 chez Mmd est fortement réduite par rapport à Mmm, probablement à cause d’agents pathogènes ayant exercé une sélection purifiante chez Mmd durant la colonisation vers l’ouest. Cependant, l'influence de mécanismes évolutifs neutres, tel que la dérive consécutive à un goulot d’étranglement démographique, ne peut être exclue sur la base de nos données. La dernière partie a été consacrée à la comparaison interspécifique de deux récepteurs : TLR4 et TLR7. Ces deux TLRs se différencient à la fois par leur localisation et leur capacité de détection. TLR4 est un TLR extracellulaire reconnaissant principalement les ligands bactériens, essentiellement les lipopolysaccharides, tandis que TLR7 est localisé dans la cellule et détecte les virus à ARN simple brin. L‘objectif était de décrire la variabilité inter-spécifique de chaque récepteur et de révéler les mécanismes de sélection s’exerçant sur ces gènes au cours de leur évolution sur une échelle de temps plus importante. Nous avons analysé 23 espèces de Murinae provenant surtout d’Asie. Nos résultats suggèrent que la sélection purifiante est la force principale ayant agit sur l’évolution des deux TLRs. Cependant, nous avons également mis en évidence des épisodes de sélection diversifiante qui ont pu être à l’origine des variations intra-spécifiques de TLRs observée aujourd’hui chez les rongeurs. Des sites sous sélection positive sont principalement concentrés dans les domaines extracellulaires des deux récepteurs, domaines responsables de la reconnaissance des agents pathogènes. Enfin, la comparaison entre ces deux TLRs montre que le TLR7 est soumis à une sélection négative plus forte. Cette sélection peut s’expliquer en raison des interactions du TLR7 avec les acides nucléiques viraux. / Appropriate recognition of parasites is crucial for effective immune response, ensuring activation of adequate defence mechanisms. In vertebrates, it has frequently been demonstrated that genes encoding proteins involved in pathogen recognition by an adaptive immune system are often subject to intense selection pressures. On the contrary, much less information has been provided on the evolution of recognition mechanisms of innate immunity. The aim of this thesis is to describe the pattern of natural variation of innate immunity genes involved in pathogen recognition in rodents and to analyze the mechanisms of their evolution. We used murine rodents (subfamily Murinae) as a principal model group because they are potential reservoirs of various pathogens dangerous to humans. First, we studied the intraspecific variability of five bacterial sensing Toll-like receptors (TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, and TLR6) in inbred strains derived from two subspecies of the house mouse (M. m. musculus, hereafter abbreviated as Mmm and Mus musculus domesticus, Mmd). Wild-derived inbred strains are suitable tools for studying variation of immunity genes because they provide information about alleles that occur in natural populations, and at the same time they occur at homozygous state. The most significant results include the findings of a stop codon in exon 2 of the Tlr5 gene in one Mmm strain and no variability in Tlr4 of Mmd. Following these results we decided to check whether the absence of Tlr4 polymorphism in Mmd reflects the pattern found in natural populations, or whether it is a consequence of insufficient sampling or subsequent breeding. We therefore sequenced Tlr4 in both subspecies across a large part of the Western Palearctic region (in total 39 Mmm and 62 Mmd individuals), then we compared these results with variability on mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome b). The result confirmed our prediction that observed variability in Mmd is strongly reduced also in free-living populations (compared to Mmm), probably due to strong purifying selection by pathogens with which they met during the westward colonization. However, the influence of random evolutionary processes (e.g. drift during bottlenecks) cannot be excluded based on our data. At the intraspecific level, we could not find any sign of positive selection. The last part of my dissertation is devoted to interspecific comparison of two receptors, TLR4 and TLR7. These two TLRs differ in the exposure and the ligands detection. TLR4 is an extracellular receptor detecting mainly bacterial ligands (especially lipopolysaccharides), while TLR7 is located inside the cell and detects ssRNA viruses. The aim of this part of the thesis was to describe variability of both receptors at the interspecific level and to reveal selection forces acting on TLRs in longer evolutionary time scale. In total we analyzed 23 rodent species of the subfamily Murinae in Europe, Asia and Africa. Our results suggest that purifying selection has been a dominant force in evolution of the Tlr4 and Tlr7 genes, but we also demonstrated that episodic diversifying selection has shaped the present species-specific variation in rodent Tlrs. Sites under positive selection were concentrated mainly in the extracellular domain of both receptors, which is responsible for ligand binding. The comparison between two TLRs lead us to the conclusion that the intracellular TLR7 is under much stronger negative selection pressure, presumably due to its interaction with viral nucleic acids.

B cells recognise antigens on micro-organisms through their B cell receptor (BCR) and via Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and thus respond in both innate and adaptive manners during the subsequent immune response. Innate recognition through TLRs has the potential to alter the behaviour of whole B cell populations. I show, here, that MyD88-dependent activation of B cells via TLR2 or TLR9 causes the rapid loss of expression of CD62L, by metalloproteinasedependent shedding, resulting in the exclusion of these cells from lymph nodes and Peyer’s patches, but not the spleen. Moreover, systemic infection with Salmonella typhimurium causes shedding of CD62L and the subsequent focussing of B cell migration to the spleen. I reveal that splenic B cells undergo further changes during S. typhimurium infection, including TLR-dependent differentiation of marginal zone B cells into IgM-secreting plasma cells. Together, these TLR-mediated alterations to B cells are likely to influence the development of immunity to pathogens carrying the appropriate ligands. In addition to these innate responses of B cells, endocytosis of cognate antigen through their BCR allows antigen presentation. This, together with their ability to secrete cytokines, means they have the potential to drive T helper cell responses. I investigate the role of B cells in such CD4+ T cell responses by following antigen-specific T cells in vivo, using both a peptide immunisation strategy and the S. typhimurium infection model. I use anti-CD20 B cell depletion antibodies to deplete B cells at various stages of the immune response, and analyse the effects on T follicular helper and memory cell populations. I show that both the generation and maintenance of T follicular helper cells is dependent on the presence of B cells. Furthermore, I demonstrate that B cells are necessary very early in immune responses, during the first 10 days, for efficient generation of memory T cells.

S100A8 is a highly-expressed calcium-binding protein in neutrophils and activated macrophages, and has proposed roles in myeloid cell differentiation and host defense. Functions of S100A8 are not fully understood, partly because of difficulties in generating S100A8 knockout mice. Attempts to silence S100A8 gene expression in activated macrophages and fibroblasts using RNA interference (RNAi) technology were unsuccessful. Despite establishing validated small interfering RNA (siRNA) systems, enzymaticallysynthesized siRNA targeted to S100A8 suppressed mRNA levels by only 40% in fibroblasts activated with FGF-2+heparin, whereas chemically-synthesized siRNAs suppressed S100A8 driven by an S100A8-expression vector by ~75% in fibroblasts. Suppression of the gene in activated macrophages/fibroblasts was low, and some enzymatically-synthesized siRNAs to S100A8, and unrelated siRNA to GAPDH, induced/enhanced S100A8 expression in macrophages. This indicated that S100A8 may be upregulated by type-1 interferon (IFN). IFN-β enhanced expression, but did not directly induce S100A8. Poly (I:C), a synthetic dsRNA, directly induced S100A8 through IL-10 and IFN-dependent pathways. Induction by dsRNA was dependent on RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR), but not cyclooxygenase-2, suggesting divergent pathways in LPS- and dsRNA-induced responses. New mechanisms of S100A8 gene regulation are presented, that suggest functions in anti-viral defense. S100A8 expression was confirmed in lungs from influenza virus-infected mice and from a patient with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Multiple pathways via mitochondria mediated S100A8 induction in LPS-activated macrophages; Generation of reactive oxygen species via the mitochondrial electron transport chain and de novo synthesis of ATP may be involved. This pathway also regulated IL-10 production, possibly via PKR. Extracellular ATP and its metabolites enhanced S100A8 induction. Results support involvement of cell stress, such as transfection, in S100A8 expression. A breast tumor cell line (MCF-7) in which the S100A8 gene was silenced, was established using micro RNA technology; S100A8 induction by oncostatin M was reduced by >90% in stably-transfected cells. This did not alter MCF-7 growth. The new approach to investigate the role of S100A8 in a human tumor cell line may assist in exploring its functions and lead to new studies concerning its role in cancer.

Conformément à l'hypothèse de l'hygiène, les infections peuvent protéger des désordres immunologiques tels les maladies autoimmunes ou allergiques. Nous avons ainsi montré que la stimulation des TLR qui détectent les infections, peut protéger du diabète de type 1. En effet, nous démontrons que le traitement de souris NOD, développant un diabète spontané, par des agonistes des TLR2, 3, 4 et 7 protège les animaux du développement de cette pathologie. Bien que toutes ces structures exercent un effet protecteur, les mécanismes impliqués s'avèrent différents en fonction du récepteur considéré. Néanmoins, la stimulation de ces récepteurs semble mettre en jeu des populations de cellules régulatrices et des cytokines immunorégulatrices. Nous avons d'ailleurs montré que la protection induite par des agonistes de TLR2 et TLR3 sont dépendantes des cellules iNKT avec en plus une implication de l'IL-4 pour TLR3. Par ailleurs, nous avons mis en évidence dans un modèle d'asthme allergique que la protection induite par un agoniste de TLR7 était portée par les lymphocytes iNKT et l'IFN-γ. Afin de comprendre les mécanismes de ce ciblage iNKT par les TLR, nous avons réalisé différentes expériences in vitro et avons pu observer que l'agoniste de TLR7 ciblait directement les iNKT et que la réponse ne nécessitait pas la présence de cellules présentatrices de l'antigène. En conclusion, nos travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence que le ciblage des voies de signalisation TLR permet de moduler les réponses immunitaires, et notamment celles dues à une perte de tolérance comme dans le cas de désordres immunologiques.

Macrophages represent long lived immune cells that are remarkably resistant to apoptosis, which allows them to perform in highly stressful environments. Apoptosis resistance is a characteristic that develops during the differentiation process from monocytes to macrophages. However, the signaling pathways that mediate the development of macrophage antiapoptotic phenotype during differentiation remain mostly unknown. Because of their decreased susceptibility to cell death, macrophages are also key viral reservoirs during HIV infection. My research aims to understand the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways that mediate cell survival during and after monocyte to macrophage differentiation and the involvement of the main families of antiapoptotic proteins, IAPs (inhibitors of apoptosis) and Bcl2 in this process. HIV accessory protein Vpr was used as an apoptotic stimulus, due to its death inducing abilities in other cell types. My results show that survival of macrophages is distinctively regulated during and after differentiation. I have identified a signaling pathway consisting of PI3K/Akt activation of NFκB that is important in survival of differentiating macrophages by specifically sustaining antiapoptotic Bcl-xL expression. However, once differentiated, Mcl-1, but not Bcl-xL is dependent on PI3K/Akt activation. Moreover, differentiated macrophages are resistant to the effect of HIV-Vpr, which is highly apoptotic for monocytes. In contrast, resistance to HIV-Vpr induced apoptosis of human macrophages is specifically mediated by antiapoptotic IAP proteins, with no involvement of the Bcl2 family, which maintains macrophage viability in the absence of any apoptotic stimuli. In addition to their antiapoptotic properties, IAPs are also important regulators of macrophage function. By using chemical compounds (SMAC mimetics) that target IAPs for degradation, I have shown that IAPs positively modulate LPS-induced IL10, IL-27 and MIG (monokine induced by IFNγ) production in human macrophages, by promoting TRAF2, JNK and p38 signaling and NFκB activation. In addition, IAPs also contribute to LPS-induction of CD80/CD86 costimulatory molecules. Overall, my results suggest that both IAPs and Bcl2 families contribute to survival of human macrophages and that IAPs are also involved in innate immune responses. Unraveling the mechanisms that control macrophage survival and function in various settings would provide therapeutic strategies aimed at eliminating cells when their survival is no longer beneficial for the host, as in the case of HIV infection or autoimmune diseases.