This thesis begins by thoroughly reviewing classical theories of adoption such as the diffusion of innovation theory, and the technology acceptance model, and subsequently analyses literature on pertinent theories which have been highlighted as drivers of adoption such as the Resource-Based View, Firm Strategy, Culture and the Digital Divide. Prior to this however, the afore-mentioned classical adoption theories were contrasted with the Post-Internet debate which explored Information Asymetry and Disintermediation. Having conducted this review it was determined that the leadership/ownership role had not been sufficiently emphasized in technology adoption, therefore this work sought to more clearly identify these personal factors in combination with the previously explored factors. The overarching theory of Organizational Decision-Making was used to provide a framework to identify drivers of decision-making processes in general and then apply these to the internet adoption context. This thesis aims to identify the combination of antecedents of technology adoption for travel firms and distil factors to identify the key determinant of the adoption of the internet for sales and marketing purposes in small, owner-managed travel firms. It examines the firm characteristics which are associated with adoption behaviour such as strategy and resources, as well as external factors such as culture and the digital divide. In addition to external and firm factors, personal factors such as ownership and leadership are explored at various stages of adoption. A predominantly qualitative methodology was used to interview travel agencies in the context of Jamaica. All firms which have similar characteristics in terms of ownership and management structure, in particular where owners are themselves the managers and provide leadership for the organization, were interviewed. The owner-managers of these firms were interviewed to gather deep perspectives from local industry experts on industry challenges, current technology involvement and future directions. Exploratory descriptive quantitative methods were used to analyze firm characteristics and their relationships to internet adoption for sales and marketing as well as the intention to use these technologies in firms, while a deeper exploration into owner-managers was achieved through qualitative enquiry. A pilot study and 2 phases of data collection were carried out. The findings indicate that the leadership role is more significant than has been previously posited. The contribution to knowledge is new in that it takes a unique approach to an understanding of technology adoption in firms by creating a comprehensive conceptual framework for adoption based on previous research and then creates a model that shows the factors and variables that drive adoption at each stage of the adoption process from a personal leadership perspective as well as the organizational perspective. Ultimately it is hoped that this focus on each stage of adoption will provide insights into firm adoption behaviour as a consequence of leadership characteristics.

This research aims to explore the ways in which people understand and value heritage through a focus on the lay rather than the expert view. This focus was considered important in order to move beyond the emphasis on expert knowledge within heritage discourses and in turn, privilege lay understandings of heritage. This study adds to current knowledge by offering an in-depth understanding of the non-expert view of heritage and the multiple meanings and values that heritage represents within this context. The rationale for this research is based on the increasingly important role heritage plays within the wider visitor economy and the recognised interrelationships between heritage and tourism. In order to develop long-term, meaningful relationships with current and potential heritage audiences, there is a need to appreciate the ways in which people engage with heritage in a much broader sense and to understand the meanings and relevance that heritage may represent within this context. In order to meet the aim of this research, an inductive qualitative methodology was designed which prioritises the emic or insider perspective of heritage. To further enhance the inductive nature of this study, the primary research took place away from a pre-defined „heritage’ context in order to allow the participants themselves to define and shape heritage as they understand and value it. Eight focus groups were carried out with forty-seven members of the public and the data was analysed through a thematic framework. Nine themes and related sub-themes were constructed to represent the lay understandings, meanings and values of heritage. The social nature of the focus group method, along with the interaction it fosters between participants, led to a range of insights about the relevance of heritage. The majority of heritage research to date has taken place within a pre-defined heritage context, which inevitably limits the scope for accessing and understanding the views of those who do not typically engage with heritage in this way. Therefore, this study further contributes by incorporating the views of those who do not typically fall within heritage user or visitor categories. By exploring the views of the so called non-user or non-visitor of heritage the barriers that prevent engagement with „heritage‟ and „heritage tourism‟ as it is defined and presented by the industry are identified. The implications of this study relate to the need for more engaging and personally relevant heritage narratives that build from an understanding of the meanings and values that shape engagement with heritage beyond a personal level. Heritage practitioners and academics need to embrace lay understandings of heritage within their activities and seek to empower current and potential audiences to critically engage with and actively interpret meanings from the heritage they present.

The successful setting up and management of micro and small businesses, and tourism related businesses in particular, is dependent on a range of situational and contextual factors (Gartner 1988, 1989; Reynolds 1991; Watson et al. 1998; Jack and Anderson 2002). When very small and micro businesses are considered, the owner’s social and economic contexts are strongly inter-related, and to interpret economic action, one needs to take into account the social context where it takes place (Granovetter 1985; Aldrich and Zimmer 1986; Curran et al. 1993; Greenbank 2001; Jack and Anderson 2002). In remote rural areas, particularly in peripheral locations, tourism businesses have been widely promoted and relied upon as a means of addressing the social and economic challenges they are going through (Sharpley 2002; Shaw and Williams 2002; Getz et al. 2004). But tourism businesses have to face the typical weakness of small firms, combined with the constraining characteristics of peripheral destinations (Dahles 1997; Morrison 1998a; Morrison and Thomas 1999; Irvine and Anderson 2004; Getz and Carlsen 2005). The supporting resources base for firm setting up is considered to be much smaller and much harder to access (Smallbone et al. 1993; Stearns et al. 1995; Patterson and Anderson 2003; Skuras et al. 2003). In such circumstances, the owners’ social personal networks play very important roles, either in the provision of immediate support, or by giving access to contacts and to resources outside the local area (Jack and Anderson 2002). But social networks can either facilitate or inhibit venture development (Casrud and Johnson 1989). Particularly with micro and/or family owned businesses, the two sub-systems are so strongly embedded, that any family issue is likely to influence the business and vice-versa, both in a positive as well as in a negative way (Stafford et al. 1999; Danes 2006). Social networks are acknowledged as important sources of strength, synergies and resources to businesses (e.g. Lynch; 2000; Habbershon et al. 2003; Buhalis and Peters 2006; Sharma 2008; Tinsley and Lynch 2008), but can also lead to dysfunctional consequences, and conflict between both systems may arise (Danes 2006; Werberl and Danes 2010). Therefore, this research aims at contributing to an under researched topic: the understanding of the role and importance of social relationships, in the small business setting up and management context. Theories of social networks, social capital and social support were considered as providing an appropriate conceptual framework. To accomplish the proposed goals and objectives a sequential, multi-methods approach was adopted, because the topic of social support, and mostly social hindrance, were under-conceptualized in the small businesses context. The first stages of qualitative data collection (interviews and subsequent group discussion) informed the structure and content of a questionnaire to be used in the main stage of quantitative data collection. The quantitative research was conducted in the Alto Alentejo and Oeste regions (Portugal), with 180, face-to-face completed questionnaires, based on a stratified random selection of tourism business owners. Data collected has enabled the identification of who within business owners’ personal network has affected their business initiative, how and with what outcomes, at different moments in time. Helpful and unhelpful behaviours, both from family and people within the personal circle have been identified and submitted to uni and multi analysis. The underlying types of social support and social hindrance were identified. At the theoretical level, this research has demonstrated the benefits of combining theories of social network and social capital, traditionally widely used in small business research, with theory of social support. A richer understanding of the role of social relationships in the business’ context was achieved. This research has also contributed to the conceptualization of negative social interactions, and the term social hindrance is suggested, as opposed to social support. The multi-dimensionality and multiplexity of both constructs has been demonstrated. At the practical level, the findings indicate that social relationships, notably from family and friends, play an important role in the setting up and management of small tourism businesses, namely through the provision of emotional support, informational support and practical aid and assistance. The results demonstrate that there is, indeed, a positive relationship between social support and business performance, whilst negative social interactions, conceptualized as social hindrance, are less likely to affect business performance and success than expected. However, caution is suggested regarding the findings relating to negative social interaction considering the positive association between social desirability and reporting of social hindering behaviours. The study discusses not only the theoretical implications but also the practical ones, namely in the development of policies that aim at facilitating the setting up and management of small tourism businesses in rural areas. Future areas of research are suggested, both with regard to exploring in further detail the data collected and in terms of new and enhanced research approaches.

The notion of customers co-creating value with the firm has recently gained considerable attention within the service marketing discipline. The Service-Dominant (S-D) and the Customer-Dominant (C-D) logic in marketing in particular emphasise the active role of customers in the co-creation of value. But further theoretical insights are needed into the process of value co-creation. Specifically, customer-to-customer (C2C) value co-creation that takes place as customers come together to socialise, interact with each other and to be co-present in socially dense service settings, requires further conceptualisation. C2C value co-creation is explored in this thesis in the socially dense service setting of multi-day outdoor festivals, using the concept of value-forming social practices as a theoretical lens. The methodological design is guided by the social constructionist stance, which complements the practice-based value approach in co-creation research by emphasising the importance of social contexts. Methods adopted include ethnographic-style participant observation, document and visual materials analysis, and a total of 52 in-depth interviews at five different UK-based outdoor multi-day festivals. Interpretive analysis identifies six distinctive C2C co-creation practices: Belonging, Bonding, Detaching, Communing, Connecting and Amiability. Each practice is described in terms of the actions in which it is embodied. The practices are positioned in a two-dimensional framework, with the Value orientation and the Value immersion dimensions reflecting the complexities and ambiguities that exist in social contexts. Aspects of subject- and situation-specific practice elements are examined with regard to their role in influencing the C2C co-creation process at festivals. Practice-based segmentation and social servicescape design strategies are proposed, which can be used to support and facilitate C2C co-creation. A theoretical contribution is made to the body of knowledge in service marketing, and the S-D and C-D logics in particular, by advancing understanding of what specifically is involved in C2C value co-creation. The thesis also offers holistic insights relevant for service marketing practice. It provides tangible recommendations that could lead to more favourable social outcomes for customers and consequently, competitive advantage for the firm.

The aim of this research was to provide an analysis of the experiences of female business owners in the development and management of micro and small handicraft businesses in Jordan, which is an Arab Islamic country. The study adopted a critical realism and critical theory/feminism stance with the focus being on the inter-action between structure and agency. The Structuration Theory was the main theory underpinning interpretation of the findings for this thesis; it is concerned with structure and agency and the duality between the two. Structure refers to the environment within which the women live and work: the socio-cultural-religious environment and the external business-related environment. Agency refers to the nature and extent of the freedom demonstrated by women business owners when choosing their course of action within these environments. The study used a sequential, mixed method research approach, which was chosen as the most effective and appropriate approach to explore these phenomena. The primary data was collected through a drop and collect quantitative self-completion questionnaire in the first phase, followed by face-to-face in-depth semi-structured qualitative interviews in the second phase. The samples consisted of 264 women, who completed the questionnaire during the quantitative phase of the research, and 12 women, who were interviewed in-depth in the qualitative phase of the research. The quantitative data analysis was conducted using SPSS, whilst the qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis. Most of the published research on the experiences of, and influences on, female owners of micro and small businesses is based on Western countries (He 2011). This research adds to that knowledge by focusing on female business owners of handicraft businesses in the patriarchal, collective, Islamic society of Jordan. The quantitative research provides a profile of the women business owners, along with details of their businesses and their experiences during the start-up and operational stages. The qualitative research identifies the power of the socio-cultural-religious and business environment factors on the behaviour and attitudes of the women business owners. Together, these research findings reveal the influence of the socio-cultural-religious factors and business environment factors on the behaviour and attitudes of female owners of micro and small handicraft businesses, as well as the ability of these women to choose their own courses of action. The findings of the quantitative and qualitative research were synthesised into a conceptual framework.

Whilst tourism has been recognised as a tool for tackling social exclusion, disability has been a neglected area of tourism. Moreover, few studies have focused on the experiences of vision impaired people in part due to an assumption that they can derive little from seeing ‘the sights’ and experiencing a place at its full potential. My research aims to gain a profound and in-depth understanding of the tourism experiences of vision impaired people to discover the meaning and significance of tourism in their lives while also capturing embodied experiences in tourism places and spaces. Underpinned by the social, sociology of impairment and affirmation models of disability, the study’s emancipatory disability research philosophy places vision impaired people’s voices at its heart as the study’s co-researchers. Phase One involved four focus groups of vision impaired people at Cardiff Vale and Valleys while Phase Two is based on in-depth conversations with five vision impaired people and their families in South East Wales. Phase One identifies individual, social and environmental barriers to positive participation while Phase Two highlights the need for effective staff training, universal design, accessible information and illustrates that embodied experiences involve the synaesthesia of the senses connecting with multi-sensory tourism environments. Vision impairment does not necessarily preclude appreciation of visual impressions and my co-researchers have demonstrated from non-vision and low vision perspectives that meaningful tourism experiences are achievable. However, the research also presents a complex and diverse picture of needs and aspirations in tourism engagement. The thesis concludes with a series of recommendations for enquiry, practice and policy. It is suggested that inclusive thinking by the tourism industry, scholars and vision impaired people themselves hold the key to improving rights of citizenship and enabling vision impaired people to find an equal sense of place in the world.

published_or_final_version / Geography / Master / Master of Arts in China Development Studies

This research focuses on the cross-cultural study of the spatial distribution of tourists (SDT) or international tourists (SDIT) within China. It encompasses two broad areas of knowledge base - cross-cultural and SDT. Many of the issues in these wide ranging, but overlapping, domains have developed separately and have as yet to be conceptualised and researched in a holistic and rigorous manner. This makes the holistic and behavioural perspective, as well as the scientific approach of this study, all the more novel. The societal context of this study - tourism in China, adds more practical and theoretical interest to this research. Its diversified tourism resources provide one of the best places to carry out a cross-cultural spatial research. The conceptual framework has strengthened and reinforced the literature in two respects. First, the notion of SDT has been clarified, and it is suggested that it consists of three features of tourist movement - pattern, direction and intensity. Secondly, a factual `cultural distance' variable, formed from cultural constructs, has been used to underpin the cross-cultural comparative framework in addition to commonly applied cultural proxies such as nationality. The whole research methodology was developed based upon these two notions, and was greatly enhanced by the use of the discrete choice approach (logistic regression models) by which the operational challenges faced when incorporating the behavioural elements into cross-cultural and spatial research were successfully resolved. The research findings do not entirely support the empirical evidence quoted in the crosscultural SDT literature. The key findings of this research are that tourists prefer linear instead of circular travel within China; their movements are either vertical and/or horizontal; international gateway positions of Beijing and Shanghai have been confirmed, but that of Guangzhou is questioned. All the cultural related variables are significant in the SDIT, but cultural distance is more sensitive at expressing the differences in the SDIT than cultural proxies. There is no evidence suggesting that geographical distance is a primary factor in the SDIT. Some trip attributes, such as travel groups, as well as social economic variables, such as income levels, are confirmed as significant, but demographic characteristics such as age and gender show no significance in the cross-cultural SDIT within a destination country.

The theory and practice of marketing has encountered some fundamental changes in the past and will continue to do so in the future. In the last two decades organisations have increasingly been focussing on how to relate to their markets. One response to this complexity of the marketing environment has been Relationship Marketing (RM). While the benefits of long-term and trusting relationships with consumers have generally been accepted, many organisations struggle to establish and/or maintain relationships with their consumers. One of the reasons for this is that the implications of the consumers' perspective with regards to their relationships with organisations have not been investigated and are missing from the current literature. In acknowledgement, this research explored consumers' perspectives and experiences of their relationships with organisations, in particular, with reference to financial and travel and tourism organisations. The study employed an interpretive approach to research using qualitative methods to identify the key dimensions involved in interactions with organisations from a consumer's perspective. Discussion groups and in-depth interviews were carried out with members of staff of educational institutions and clubs and societies of Bournemouth. Key findings showed that the word 'relationship' caused confusion in meaning with respect to organisations due to the personal connotations that consumers associate with the word. Consumers distinguish between relationships at an emotional level (relational) and at a behavioural level (transactional). The latter was perceived to occur in relationships with organisations as opposed to the more emotional level taking place in personal relationships. In addition, a relationship moves through different phases (relationship flower) which are interlinked and involves key dimensions like trust (emotional and logical). Consumers' needs and requirements change throughout life resulting in adjustments of their relationships. The focus on the two different industry sectors (financial and travel/tourism) aided to outline the two different levels of relationships (emotional and behavioural/transactional) even further and enabled a relationship matrix to be developed highlighting the degree of relational involvement and the degree of risk involved in the different type of relationships. To conclude, this research suggests that due to the confusion concerning the word 'relationship' organisations need to incorporate key dimensions of a relationship in to their management strategies. In particular, focus should be on newly established or less mature relationships because consumers expect less personal contact in more mature relationships. In fact, an understanding of the changing lifestyle needs and requirements a consumer has will give organisations the opportunity to amend their relationship strategies accordingly. This will then allow their consumers to choose the type of relationship (relational or transactional) they wish to have. In order to help organisations this research offers a relationship model (flower) which feeds into the after sales/purchase stage of the consumer decision-making process (CDP) by highlighting the different phases of a relationship lifetime indicating the key elements that are involved in each phase. Further research may be carried out in how organisations have responded to the increased uncertainty with regards to their relationship strategies and compare it to consumer perceptions of how the economic crisis has affected their relationships with organisations.

In the mid-to-late 1980's, so called 'rust belt' cities in the UK began to respond to their industrial decline with local economic development strategies aimed at boosting employment. The strategies involved efforts to diversify traditional manufacturing heartlands into new service sector economies. One feature of the approach was the often rather implausible looking project of creating, out of unpromising material, a new urban sport and tourism industry (Roche 1992b). Faced with economic and industrial decline in the 1980's, Sheffield. traditionally a manufacturing and steel producing city, forged sport and tourism together as an alternative solution to regenerate its local economy. It was believed that investment in sporting infrastructure, and the staging of the XVI World Student Games would derive long-term economic and social benefits to all sections of the community (Price 1991). Criticised as reactive and quasi-strategic at the time, the longer-term assessment of these radical investment decisions has been overlooked. The value, role and function of major events in the local UK economic development process is therefore less than fully understood. Challenging the traditional economic base theory relationship between the manufacturing and service sectors of an economy, this thesis investigates whether investment in major events has been a rational approach to assist Sheffield's process of economic development. Utilising Williams' (1997) hypothesis that major events act as basic economic activities; by attracting and retaining external expenditure from sports tourists, the aim of the thesis is to identify whether events act as 'catalysts' to or 'motors' of local economic growth. Through the application of an expenditure based multiplier approach, five major events, staged in Sheffield between 1996 and 1998, are estimated to have had a collective impact of £10.4 million over a period of twenty-one event days (£495,00 per day). The findings of the research reveal that the staging of major sports events has a significant short-term impact on the local economy. The impact is conditional upon the type, status and duration of the event staged and the , nature of the visitor groups attracted. Extrapolating the results to all events staged in Sheffield since 1990, the thesis estimates that nearly E32 million has been injected into the local economy. On the basis of the results, the research argues that major events are an important part of the consumer service sector of a local economy. As consumer services they act to stimulate economic growth by importing consumers. While major events are shown to function as basic sector economic activities and catalysts, they are not in themselves large enough to 'motor' a local economy, but are key instruments in diversifying the local economic base. In conclusion, the thesis recognises that the academic assessment of major events in the UK is relatively immature, and it highlights the need for rigorous evaluation of the broader cost-benefit parameters associated with staging major events. Sporting, cultural, political, social and environmental impacts of major events are a few of the themes lughlighted as areas of future research.