Tourism is arguably the world’s largest industry today, and has been adopted as an economic staple by countless low-income countries. However, while the tourism industry can bring much needed foreign capital into a country’s economy, it has also proven to have severe environmental, economic and social implications on host countries. With these implications come the drive for sustainable and ecotourism approaches, and more recently, pro-poor tourism, which is tourism that aims to generate net benefits specifically for the poor population of the tourism community or country. The purpose of this study is to explore the potential for pro-poor tourism strategies to be implemented in low-income countries, and evaluate the obstacles to implementing these strategies in small-scale tourism locations. The study site for this research is a small rural community in Communist Cuba, and the main objectives of the research are to evaluate the current economic linkages that exist within the study site; determine the thoughts and feelings of the local people with respect to their local tourism industry; evaluate the degree to which the study site is currently following pro-poor tourism principles and what possibilities exist for more to be done; and to offer recommendations for the case study location. In addition to a comprehensive literature review on the progression of Cuba’s tourism industry since the Revolution to present date, this research employs further methods to examine Cuba’s small-scale tourism industry including semi-structured and informal interviews with residents employed by the tourism industry, residents employed in sectors other than tourism, as well as local farmers. Further, participant observation is carried out over a three month period on the island, with one month spent specifically at the study site. The results of this study demonstrate that Cuba’s Communist political environment both fosters and hinders pro-poor tourism development. In terms of employment and agriculture, the State goes to great ends to utilize local resources to supply the local economy, however, with respect to entrepreneurship and the rigid regulations dictated by the State, pro-poor development is inhibited. Not surprisingly, Cubans generally have a positive opinion of the tourism industry, primarily because it has directly increased the standard of living of many, yet for those who do not work in tourism, State wages and monthly rations are inadequate, pushing many to find other means to make ends meet. These factors have swayed many people to dealings on the black market and to seek out legal and illegal employment within the tourism industry, both of which have serious implications on the country’s economy. The main conclusion drawn from this study is that Cuba’s small-scale tourism industry is in fact benefiting the country’s rural population, and generally, the residents’ standard of living within the study site has improved with its introduction. While the Cuban government has not purposefully adopted pro-poor tourism principles, some of the country’s Communist practices naturally lead to their adoption, i.e. maximizing internal economic linkages where possible, widespread local employment, and maximizing the use of regional and national foodstuffs to support the country’s tourism industry. On the other hand however, and as this thesis will reveal, Communism works in direct opposition to the adoption of many pro-poor practices.

In recent years, the impacts of tourism on the environment have indicated an urgent need for sustainability principles to be introduced within the industry. Although problems arise regarding the definition and meanings of sustainability, the Ecological Footprint has been proposed as a key indicator of sustainable tourism. In this study, the ecological footprint was adapted to a tourism context, in order to measure the sustainability of backpacker tourists, who are speculated to be environmentally friendly due to their low budgets and use of few resources. During this study surveys were conducted with 123 backpackers and hostel tourists staying at 8 hostels located throughout Ontario and Quebec. Information was collected on respondents’ food, activity and transportation behaviours, as well as hostel occupancy rates, property sizes, energy usages, and waste management routines. This data was inputted into the ecological footprint calculator to determine the average ecological footprints of backpacker tourists in Ontario and Quebec, and the relationship between the ecological footprint, demographics and travelling behaviours. In addition to the data collected for ecological footprint calculations, information was also gathered on hostel and respondent environmental behaviours. The findings indicate that backpacker tourism is substantially more sustainable than some other forms of international travel, however it is generally not sustainable as an activity. Backpacker ecological footprints were considerably higher than the average footprints of residents in their home countries, indicating the immense impacts of transportation, which accounted for 77% of the average EF in this study. As most backpackers in this study were international travellers, the transportation impacts were often a result of flight emissions and although an inquiry was made into sustainable flight options, it is clear that there is currently no perfect solution for decreasing flight impacts. As a result, reducing the ecological footprint of backpacker tourism to a sustainable level currently appears to be for the most part, impossible. However, as backpacker tourism does contribute to the social and economic sustainability of some areas, minor changes are possible within the sector, to at least make the backpacker market as environmentally sustainable as currently possible.

This study assesses the relationship between planning and creative destruction in the village of Creemore, Ontario. The study has four objectives. The first is to describe the evolution of tourism in Creemore by tracking change in three variables: investment, visitor numbers and resident attitudes. Second, is to describe past and present tourism planning in the village. Third, is to assess Creemore’s position in the model of creative destruction, based on information presented in objectives one and two. The final objective is to provide recommendations for Creemore’s future based on information gained from the other objectives. To investigate the first objective, entrepreneurial investment was provided by secondary sources, including the Creemore Business Improvement Association (BIA). Visitor numbers were obtained from content analyses of copies of the local newspaper and from information provided by the Creemore Springs Brewery. Resident attitudes were gleaned from a survey completed by 126 residents of Creemore. To meet the second objective, a content analysis was completed on historic issues of the local newspaper and six key informant interviews were conducted. Based on the information provided from the first two objectives, it is concluded that Creemore is in the second stage of Mitchell’s (1998) model of creative destruction, Advanced Commodification. This conclusion is drawn since visitor numbers and investment levels are still low and resident attitudes are generally positive towards tourism. It is also concluded that tourism planning plays a large role in creative destruction, as it can speed up, or slow down, the process, depending on the types of planning that are implemented. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that a tourism plan be developed to help mitigate possible future negative impacts of tourism, and to ensure the village does not evolve any further along the path of creative destruction.

Development agencies and policymakers are increasingly advocating tourism as a viable and legitimate poverty reduction strategy in least-developed countries (LDCs). However, the rhetoric surrounding tourism development mechanisms in the context of LDCs far outweighs the empirical evidence. Much of the tourism literature has examined impacts of tourism in LDCs, but little research has examined development processes and their impacts on poverty, comprehensively defined. This study examines the development processes by which tourism affects poverty, analyses the effects of tourism employment on poverty conditions, and explores ways that tourism can contribute to poverty reduction. These objectives are addressed using a multi-methods research approach and case study situated in Nkhata Bay, Malawi. The research findings demonstrated that tourism development mechanisms of employment, local sourcing, and philanthropy were most prevalent in Nkhata Bay, while mechanisms such as direct sales, the establishment of small enterprises, taxes, and infrastructure were less apparent. Further analysis revealed that while tourism employment had positive effects on monetary and employment conditions of tourism employees, these effects did not reflect improvements in other facets of poverty. The main conclusions of the study are that tourism is not an indelible force for poverty alleviation, as it can have alleviating, perpetuating, and exacerbating effects on poverty. However, while tourism offers limited poverty reduction potential as a national economic development strategy, tourism facilitates alternative sources of development finance, such as philanthropy, which can support alternative development processes on a local level, and may be more effective in harnessing the potential of tourism to deliver poverty reduction objectives.

Tourism has become one of Egypt’s main sources of income and has undergone rapid privatization and subsequent growth. This has resulted in numerous policy and implementation gaps including those in environmental policy. Egypt’s natural resources are thus threatened by this unsustainable tourism growth. This study analyses the impact of the tourism privatization movement in Egypt on the distribution of environmental responsibility between the private and public sectors and the environmental consequences. Changes in the roles of the private and public sectors in tourism and other roles, priorities, and agendas that each stakeholder may have are considered in this thesis. In order to gather information for this study, Egyptian laws and legislations pertaining to the areas of the environment, tourism and investment were examined. Secondary data from government sources about tourist numbers and characteristics, and about investment trends in Egypt were also obtained and examined. A series of interviews of key informants from the public sector, private sector, and NGOs were also conducted in the Egyptian capital city, Cairo, and on the Red Sea. Two Red Sea cities, Hurghada and El Gouna were visited and environmental initiatives in them were observed and made note of. This study finds that the Egyptian private sector is more successful than the public sector at planning and managing environmental initiatives, and that Egypt’s tourism pricing policy is a key influence on the level of environmental degradation. In terms of laws and regulations, it was found that Egypt has a sufficient number of environmental regulations and institutions; but that the challenge lies in their functioning and efficiency, and that the government’s environmental initiatives are largely symbolic and designed to attract foreign aid. These findings suggest that Egypt should focus on improving the quality rather than increasing the quantity of tourism. Accordingly, the marketing competitive advantage should be the quality and uniqueness of the destination rather than its low price. In terms of private-public sector interactions, governmental institutions should assume a more active role in environmental protection and should employ experts and knowledgeable professionals as decision makers, while the private sector should be encouraged to undertake large-scale tourism projects. It is found that sustainable tourism cannot be achieved without the contribution and collaboration of both parties in tourism planning and development.

This study examines the relationship between parks and adjacent communities, through a case study of Bon Echo Provincial Park and the village of Cloyne. Two objectives are identified. First is to assess the nature of the relationship between Bon Echo and the community from the perspective of local community members, using the Grounded Theory methodology. The second objective is to provide recommendations, based on the findings of the case study, using the framework of the Healthy Communities approach. These objectives are met through primary and secondary data collection. The former consists of thirty-two personal, semi-structured interviews that were conducted with community members. The latter includes a variety of documents written about the park, the village and the general area. The study finds that the park has been an important part of this area for many years. It demonstrates that three types of relationships exist between Cloyne and Bon Echo. The formal relationship is the ‘official’ relationship between the park and the community. The functional relationship describes how the community perceives and uses the park. The facilitative relationship highlights how the park facilitates (or creates) costs and benefits to the community, and how it influences sense-of-place. Finally, the study demonstrates that the community would like to see change in its relationship with the park. As such, six recommendations are provided that are in line with the Healthy Communities approach. These recommendations illustrate that the overall relationship could be improved by encouraging the park to localize their methods and practices. By localizing provincial parks and helping to develop stronger local tourism economies, both the park and the community will benefit.

Destination image is a concept created by different demand and supply agents. The balance between what is expected and what is being delivered is essential in promoting the destination. The main goal of this study is to describe the different destination images related to Dracula tourism in Transylvania. This is accomplished by looking at the Western tourists’ expectations and demands as expressed in their travel blogs, and by analyzing the supply side through the elicitation of information from locals and Bran Castle tour guides through qualitative interviews. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze the content, visual and audio information on sampled blogs and interviews. This method identified 11 different themes which captured the overall destination image. The themes focused primarily on historical and fictional images of the destination, on the type of tourists visiting Bran Castle, but also on the locals’ image and response to Dracula tourism. The findings of this study reveal that the majority of Western bloggers visit Bran in search for Count Dracula; however, the Bran Castle tour guides focus on presenting the historical truth. Local residents, although seeing Dracula as a national hero, sometimes adopt the mythical image as a marketing or product development tactic in selling to visitors. Nevertheless, the stakeholders involved in the creation of the image each fit into different destination image frameworks, allowing for the creation of an overall destination image based on historical and fictional elements.

Industrial remains can be found in many regions that experienced industrialization. However, they are, in general, at risk of loss through destruction and abandonment. Promoting tourism can be a helpful tool for regional restructuring and economic development. The creative economy is also emerging as a powerful tool for reinvigorating economic growth, employment and social cohesion of those areas, which may affect the development of touristic activities and industries. However, little research has been done to link creative economy theory and industrial heritage tourism. This paper elaborates on and clarifies the link between industrial heritage tourism and creative economy, and illustrates the impact of creativity and the driving role of the creative class in industrial heritage tourism through a case study. The study site, 798 art zone, is a newly emerged tourism destination in China which developed based on an abandoned soviet-style factory. Through analyzing the initiation status of tourism development in the factory, the interests of visitors, the influences of tourism, and the role of artists, the research reveals the dramatic change under the impact of tourism and more recently added development boom that has taken place at the 798 art zone. The findings identify the characteristics of 798 art zone in different periods and the contributions of the artist community to the art zone. Unlike most industrial heritage tourism sites, the development of 798 art zone was bottom up owing to the creativity of artists. With their creative eyes, artists identified the special features of the abandoned factory (high ceilings, historic design, open spaces, and abundant natural light), and used their creativity to add artistic feelings to this area. When the factory was facing the fate of being razed, they pulled together. With their efforts, the factory was preserved and 798 art zone was acknowledged by the government. The results are in accord with the creative economy theory that creativity is the driving force of economic development and improve the understanding of how creativity and tourism interact. The development pattern of 798 art zone might not apply precisely to any other places in the world, but it provides an effective alternative model for revitalization of old industrial sites as well as other tourism sites. Some management related suggestions and concerns about 798 art zone and tourists profile are proposed. Both practical implications and academic insights are presented based on the major findings of this study.

This study examined the role volunteer tourism played in the conservation of elephants in Chiang Mai, Thailand. A case study was conducted to determine whether volunteer tourism at the Elephant Nature Park (ENP) had an effect on elephant conservation. Specifically, this study looked at how volunteer tourism and the ENP had an impact on: non-volunteer tourists, elephants, the local economy, and government policy. Mixed methods were used to attain the data in this study. Self-administered questionnaires were created to determine the impact volunteer tourism had on non-volunteer tourists. Results showed an increase in non-volunteer tourists’ awareness of elephant tourism, volunteer tourism and elephant conservation during the time they spent at the park. Self-administered questionnaires were also used to determine whether members of the local community felt they were receiving economic or social benefits from volunteer tourism and the ENP. The data showed that community participants felt they were receiving both economic and social benefits but their responses varied depending on sex, age, and how long they had lived in the region. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted to determine the role the ENP had on the conservation of elephants in Thailand and government policy. Interviewees consisted of experts in the industry who were knowledgeable about elephant tourism, volunteer tourism, and the ENP. The data indicated that the ENP created awareness about elephant conservation issues with non-volunteer tourists, volunteers, the community, and government officials. However, the ENP did not have any measureable effect on government policy. The model of volunteer tourism utilized by the Elephant Nature Park has been shown to be effective in conserving the domestic elephant and in creating awareness about domestic elephant conservation issues in Thailand.

Heritage tourism is employed by many countries to facilitate economic development as well as to assist in the preservation of heritage. Different stakeholders have different and sometimes conflicting expectation in the process of converting heritage resources into marketable products. Heritage tourism is especially complicated because public and private, historical and sometimes ethnic resources are involved. Despite the fact that some literature is devoted to the impacts of the designation and management of heritage tourism on residents, little research has been done on how government roles and associated political perspectives can affect the way that heritage tourism develops. Detailed comparative studies that are undertaken from this perspective are rare. This research uses experiences of Daxu ancient town and Yangshuo town, in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, to compare the influence of governmental involvement on heritage tourism development. Key stakeholders’ perceptions (tourists, entrepreneurs, residents and governments) were examined in both towns through quantitative and qualitative research. A tourist survey was conducted to collect data on their experience on their trips. A resident survey was conducted to collect data on local residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts, and their judgments of the government’s performance in tourism administration and promotion. Entrepreneurs were interviewed to understand their motivations, situations and expectations for their businesses. Finally, government officials were interviewed to understand the policies, marketing, and official attitudes and involvement in tourism development. Economic advantages have been a driving force in heritage tourism development in both towns. Yangshuo is in a more mature stage of tourism development than Daxu which is still in the initial stage. Residents in both towns show high expectations for tourism development, but Yangshuo residents are surer about most of the impacts brought by tourism. Entrepreneurs are often local investors and are struggling in Daxu while, in Yangshuo, tourism entrepreneurs are often from elsewhere and include international investors. Yangshuo entrepreneurs are more entrepreneurial, highly responsive to the market and are contributing to the attractions of Yangshuo. Government attitudes toward tourism are very different between Daxu and Yangshuo. Yangshuo’s government accords great importance to tourism and actively supports its tourism development and, as such, tourism boomed in Yangshuo. Daxu’s government passively supports tourism. This study confirms that variations in government support can greatly influence the style and pace of tourism development.