The four essays included in this dissertation are in the field of open economy Macroeconomics. Essays I, II and IV deal with a work-horse model in this field – a two-sector small open economy growth model with traded and nontraded goods. Writing down such a model requires an assumption about the role of traded and nontraded goods in domestic consumption and investments. While several empirical studies have looked at the consumption side, a systematic examination of the role of traded and nontraded goods in investments is missing. Essay I aims to fill this gap. Drawing on extensive empirical evidence, we show that aggregate investment expenditure shares on traded and nontraded goods are very similar in rich and poor countries. Furthermore, the two expenditure shares have remained close to constant over time, with the average nontraded expenditure share varying between 0.54-0.60 over the 1960-2002 period. Combined with the fact that the relative price of nontraded goods correlates positively with income and exhibits large differences across space and time, our findings suggest that investment can be modeled using the Cobb-Douglas aggregator. The results of this essay offer a new restriction for the two-sector growth model, which can alter the conclusions drawn from the model. To demonstrate this, we apply the new restriction to a study by Hsieh and Klenow (2003), which argues that differences in relative productivity between traded and nontraded sectors, i.e., the Balassa-Samuelson effect, is the main cause of higher PPP-adjusted investment rates in rich countries. With the restriction imposed on the model, no more than 25 percent of the differences in PPP-adjusted investment rates between rich and poor counties can be attributed to the Balassa-Samuelson effect. In Essays II and IV the same two-sector growth model is put to the test using the recent economic developments in countries of Eastern and Central Europe. Essay II investigates whether the two-sector growth model can explain the magnitudes and the timing of the trade flows in the Baltic countries. The model is calibrated for each of the three countries, which we simulate as small closed economies that suddenly open up to international trade and capital flows. The results show that the model can account for the observed magnitudes of the trade deficits in the 1995-2001 period. Introducing a real interest rate risk premium in the model increases its explanatory power. According to the model, trade balances will turn positive in the Baltic states around 2010. Essay IV starts by summarizing empirical regularities for the key aggregate real sector variables in the eight countries that joined the EU in May 2004. It is shown that, following the reforms in the early 1990s, real sector developments in all eight countries exhibit remarkable similarities. Interestingly, this is the case despite the fact that different reform policies were pursued in several dimensions (e.g., privatization, nominal exchange rate). Next, we show that a calibrated two-sector small open economy growth model can account for most of the real sector adjustments in early post-reform years. Empirical studies have found rapid traded sector productivity growth in Central and Eastern European countries over the last decade. When traded sector productivity growth is added to the model, it captures the development in all key real sector variables during the post-reform period. Finally, Essay III contributes to the study of financial crises in emerging markets. In contrast to the other essays, this paper develops a highly stylized theoretical model that allows us to study analytically government response to financial crises. In particular, Essay III develops a framework for analyzing optimal government bailout policy in a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model where financial crises are exogenous. Important elements of the model are that private borrowers internalize only part of the social cost of foreign borrowing in the emerging market and that the private sector is illiquid in the event of a crisis. The distinguishing feature of our paper is that it addresses the optimal bailout policy in an environment where there are both costs and benefits of bailouts, and where bailout guarantees potentially distort investment decisions in the private sector. We show that it is always optimal to commit to a bailout policy that only partially protects investment against inefficient liquidation, both in a centralized economy and a market economy. Due to overinvestment in the market economy, the government's optimal level of bailout guarantees is lower than in the social optimum. Further, we show that, in contrast to a social planner, the government in the market economy should optimally bail out a smaller fraction of private investments when the probability of a crisis is higher. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2005 S. i-x: sammanfattning, s. 1-187: 4 uppsatser

The diploma thesis focuses on the specification of suitability of legal entities to invest in securities "Exchange Traded Funds" in the current conditions of the Czech Republic. The results of the thesis serve to present alternative, modern ways to invest surplus money and get a new yield. Conclusions can be used by senior management of designated legal entities.

[pt] O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar a eficiência na precificação de três dos Exchange-Traded Funds brasileiros mais líquidos (BOVA11, SMAL11 e PIBB11), buscando determinar se eles seguem com bastante proximidade os índices que procuram replicar, comparando com o que é observado na literatura internacional no que diz respeito ao desempenho de ETFs estrangeiros. Inicialmente verificou-se a estratégia de replicação adotada, bem como a qualidade dessa replicação a partir da avaliação do tracking error observado nesses fundos. Em seguida buscou-se avaliar se há algum desvio na precificação entre o preço de negociação e o valor patrimonial líquido (NAV) do respectivo ETF, ou seja, se o ativo está sendo negociado, na média, com prêmio ou desconto. Por fim, foi analisada a persistência dos prêmios ou descontos encontrados, isto é, quanto tempo leva até o preço de mercado e o NAV voltarem ao equilíbrio. Os resultados encontrados mostram que os fundos BOVA11 e PIBB11 adotam uma estratégia de full replication, enquanto o SMAL11 apresenta uma estratégia de otimização. O tracking error encontrado está em linha com aqueles observados em ETFs europeus e os três fundos estudados são negociados, na média, com desconto. Finalmente, tanto BOVA11 e PIBB11 levam sete dias para voltarem ao equilíbrio, bastante acima da média observada na literatura internacional, enquanto o SMAL11 leva apenas dois dias para isso, o que é inesperado já que é o fundo menos líquido dentre os analisados. Os resultados indicam que as ferramentas de arbitragem não estão sendo utilizadas de maneira eficiente. / [en] The objective of this study is to analyze the pricing efficiency of three of the most liquid brazilian Exchange-Traded Funds (BOVA11, SMAL11 and PIBB11) and determine if they follow closely the indexes they try to replicate, comparing with the international literature regarding the foreign ETFs performance. Firstly, this study verifies which strategy is adopted by each fund, as well as the quality of this replication by evaluating the tracking error observed in these funds. Then it is analyzed if there is any deviation between the trading price and the net asset value (NAV) of the respective ETF, that is, if the security is being traded, on average, with a premium or discount. Finally, it is evaluated the persistence of those premiums and discounts found, that is, how much time it takes until the trading price and the NAV go back to equilibrium. The results showed that both BOVA11 and PIBB11 adopt a full replication strategy, while SMAL11 presents an optimization strategy. The tracking error found is in line with those observed in European ETFs and the three funds are traded, on average, with a discount. Finally, both BOVA11 and PIBB11 take seven days to go back to equilibrium, while SMAL11 only takes two days, an unexpected result as this is the least liquid fund of the three that are part of this study. Therefore, the arbitrage tools are not being used efficiently.

Increasing sophistication of exchange traded fund (ETF) indexation methods required that a comparison be drawn between various methodologies. A performance and risk evaluation of four pre-selected ETF indexation categories were conducted to establish the diversification benefits that each contain. Fundamentally weighted, equally weighted and leveraged ETFs were compared to traditional market capitalisation weighted ETFs on the basis of risk and return. While a literature review presented the theory on ETFs and the various statistical measures used for this study, the main findings were obtained empirically from a sample of South African and American ETFs. Several risk-adjusted performance measures were employed to assess the risk and return of each indexation category. Special emphasis was placed on the Omega ratio due to the unique interpretation of the return series‟ distribution characteristics. The risk of each ETF category was evaluated using the exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA), while the diversification potential was determined by means of a regression analysis based on the single index model. According to the findings, fundamentally weighted ETFs perform the best during an upward moving market when compared by standard risk-adjusted performance measures. However, the Omega ratio analysis revealed the inherent unsystematic risk of alternatively indexed ETFs and ranked market capitalisation weighted ETFs as the best performing category. Equal weighted ETFs delivered consistently poor rankings, while leveraged ETFs exhibited a high level of risk associated with the amplified returns of this category. The diversification measurement concurred with the Omega ratio analysis and highlighted the market capitalisation weighted ETFs to be the most diversified ETFs in the selection. Alternatively indexed ETFs consequently deliver higher absolute returns by incurring greater unsystematic risk, while simultaneously reducing the level of diversification in the fund. / MCom (Risk Management), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

Increasing sophistication of exchange traded fund (ETF) indexation methods required that a comparison be drawn between various methodologies. A performance and risk evaluation of four pre-selected ETF indexation categories were conducted to establish the diversification benefits that each contain. Fundamentally weighted, equally weighted and leveraged ETFs were compared to traditional market capitalisation weighted ETFs on the basis of risk and return. While a literature review presented the theory on ETFs and the various statistical measures used for this study, the main findings were obtained empirically from a sample of South African and American ETFs. Several risk-adjusted performance measures were employed to assess the risk and return of each indexation category. Special emphasis was placed on the Omega ratio due to the unique interpretation of the return series‟ distribution characteristics. The risk of each ETF category was evaluated using the exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA), while the diversification potential was determined by means of a regression analysis based on the single index model. According to the findings, fundamentally weighted ETFs perform the best during an upward moving market when compared by standard risk-adjusted performance measures. However, the Omega ratio analysis revealed the inherent unsystematic risk of alternatively indexed ETFs and ranked market capitalisation weighted ETFs as the best performing category. Equal weighted ETFs delivered consistently poor rankings, while leveraged ETFs exhibited a high level of risk associated with the amplified returns of this category. The diversification measurement concurred with the Omega ratio analysis and highlighted the market capitalisation weighted ETFs to be the most diversified ETFs in the selection. Alternatively indexed ETFs consequently deliver higher absolute returns by incurring greater unsystematic risk, while simultaneously reducing the level of diversification in the fund. / MCom (Risk Management), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

In this thesis we consider three different problems in the domain of portfolio optimisation. The first problem we consider is that of selecting an Absolute Return Portfolio (ARP). ARPs are usually seen as financial portfolios that aim to produce a good return regardless of how the underlying market performs, but our literature review shows that there is little agreement on what constitutes an ARP. We present a clear definition via a three-stage mixed-integer zero-one program for the problem of selecting an ARP. The second problem considered is that of designing a Market Neutral Portfolio (MNP). MNPs are generally defined as financial portfolios that (ideally)exhibit performance independent from that of an underlying market, but, once again, the existing literature is very fragmented. We consider the problem of constructing a MNP as a mixed-integer non-linear program (MINLP) which minimises the absolute value of the correlation between portfolio return and underlying benchmark return. The third problem is related to Exchange-Traded Funds (ETFs). ETFs are funds traded on the open market which typically have their performance tied to a benchmark index. They are composed of a basket of assets; most attempt to reproduce the returns of an index, but a growing number try to achieve a multiple of the benchmark return, such as two times or the negative of the return. We present a detailed performance study of the current ETF market and we find, among other conclusions, constant underperformance among ETFs that aim to do more than simply track an index. We present a MINLP for the problem of selecting the basket of assets that compose an ETF, which, to the best of our knowledge, is the first in the literature. For all three models we present extensive computational results for portfolios derived from universes defined by S&P international equity indices with up to 1200 stocks. We use CPLEX to solve the ARP problem and the software package Minotaur for both our MINLPs for MNP and an ETF.

A liquidez do mercado acionário pode ser estudada sob diversas perspectivas. No Brasil, o tema tem sido objeto de investigações econômicas, mas pouco se tem escrito a respeito na literatura jurídica. Esta tese examina, em primeiro lugar, os possíveis significados do termo liquidez; os principais métodos para que se mensure a liquidez do mercado acionário; e as vantagens que um mercado líquido pode propiciar às companhias abertas. Em segundo lugar, a tese apresenta um panorama dos principais fatores que podem estimular a liquidez do mercado acionário, entre os quais figuram o comportamento dos investidores, a microestrutura do mercado e o arcabouço normativo vigente. Em mercados acionários emergentes, também a concentração acionária - entendida como a predominância de companhias em que o poder de controle é exercido majoritariamente - pode ter impactos negativos sobre a liquidez. Nesse contexto, o direito societário desempenha papel importante ao disciplinar potenciais conflitos entre acionistas controladores e acionistas minoritários que tenham repercussões sobre a liquidez das ações. Nesse sentido, a Lei das S.A. e a regulamentação expedida pela Comissão de Valores Mobiliários - CVM instituem mecanismos que visam a proteger acionistas minoritários nas situações em que o exercício do poder de controle pode lhes privar de um pressuposto de liquidez: o acesso ao mercado secundário de valores mobiliários. Essas situações são, em síntese, o cancelamento de registro de companhia aberta; e a realização de reorganizações societárias em que a base acionária de companhia aberta é compelida a migrar para uma companhia fechada. A tese compara os mecanismos aplicáveis a cada hipótese e busca demonstrar (a) as assimetrias existentes entre eles; e (b) de que maneira eles se inserem na estrutura de exercício do poder de controle estabelecida pela Lei das S.A. Além disso, o acionista controlador pode prejudicar a liquidez de mercado das ações ao aumentar sua participação acionária e provocar um estreitamento do mercado. Também para essa situação - conhecida como \"fechamento branco de capital\" - a Lei das S.A. e a regulamentação expedida pela CVM instituíram mecanismos de proteção aos acionistas minoritários. A tese examina os problemas hermenêuticos relacionados a esses mecanismos e questiona sua efetividade - talvez comprometida pelo fato de que, para os fins daqueles mecanismos, a liquidez acionária é mensurada com base em um critério insuficiente (a participação do acionista controlador, considerada abstratamente). Ao final, a tese apresenta possíveis diretivas para a alteração do arcabouço normativo vigente. / The liquidity of the stock market can be studied from different standpoints. In Brazil, this topic has been the subject of investigations in economic theory, but little has been written thereon in legal literature. This thesis examines, in the first place, the possible meanings of the term liquidity; the main methods for measuring the liquidity of stock markets; and the advantages that a liquid market may provide to publicly-traded companies. Secondly, this thesis presents an overview of the main factors that can stimulate stock market liquidity, which may include investors\' behavior, the market microstructure and the legal and regulatory framework. In emerging markets, ownership concentration - understood as the predominance of companies controlled by a majority shareholder - may further negatively impact liquidity. In this context, corporate law plays an important role in providing solutions for potential conflicts that may arise between controlling shareholders and minority shareholders, which may reverberate on the stock liquidity. In this sense, the Brazilian Corporations Law and the regulations issued by the Brazilian Securities Commission provide for protection mechanisms applicable to situations in which the controlling shareholder may deprive minority shareholders of a premise of liquidity: the access to the secondary securities market. These situations are, in brief, the decision to voluntarily deregister as a publicly-traded company; and to carry out merger transactions in which the publicly-traded company\'s shareholders are compelled to migrate to a privately-held company. The thesis compares the protection mechanisms which apply to each of such hypotheses and intends to (a) demonstrate the existing asymmetries between them; and (b) analyze if and how they are compatible with the governing structure set forth by the Brazilian Corporations Law. Furthermore, controlling shareholders may hinder stock market liquidity by increasing its equity stake and causing a narrowing of the market. Likewise for such situation - known in Brazil as \"cold delisting\" - the Brazilian Corporations Law and the regulations issued by the Brazilian Securities Commission instituted remedies for the protection of minority shareholders. The thesis examines the hermeneutical issues concerning such mechanisms and challenges their effectiveness - which is hampered perhaps due to the fact that, for the purposes of such mechanisms, market liquidity is measured by an insufficient criterion (an abstract trigger based on the controlling shareholder\'s ownership stake). Finally, the thesis presents possible directives for the amendment of the existing Brazilian legal framework.

Thesis advisor: Ronnie Sadka / In the first essay of this dissertation, I study the impact that hedge fund manager connections have on investment ideas. I find that hedge fund managers who previously worked at the same prior hedge fund invest more similarly, hold more overlapping portfolios, and trade and overweight the same stocks relative to managers who do not share an employment connection. Overall, these results support theoretical prediction that networked managers share ideas that leads to price discovery for commonly held stocks. The second essay analyzes the role of ETFs in mutual fund families and is joint work with Caitlin Dannhauser. We study mutual fund and ETF twins - index funds from the same family that follow the same benchmark. We find that mutual fund twins have lower overall tax burdens while ETF twins have higher long-term yields and unrealized capital gains, but are compensated with lower expense ratios. Fund families benefit because twin offerings generate higher flows than their non-twin peers. These results support previous research that mutual fund families use diversification and subsidization to benefit the overall family. In the third essay, I study the use of latent factors in explaining hedge fund returns. Using an alternative latent factor estimator, asymptotic principal components (APC), I find explains more of the common variation of hedge fund returns on average and does so with greater efficiency than that found in the literature. I also identify an increase in the common variation across hedge fund excess return in the time-series via the extracted latent factors. My results suggest an impetus for future researchers to employ APC factors when characterizing hedge fund performance. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. Carroll School of Management. / Discipline: Finance.

Thesis advisor: Pierluigi Balduzzi / Thesis advisor: Jonathan Reuter / In the first essay of this dissertation, I study the impact of fund redemptions and resulting sell-offs on corporate bond yields. To control for unobserved changes in fundamentals, I study within-issuer variation of yield changes, resulting from differential exposure to redemptions and sell-offs. In contrast to previous findings for equity funds, I find no evidence indicating that bond funds destabilize the corporate bond market by moving prices beyond fundamental values. I attribute this finding to bond fund management. Although I find that investors demonstrate a bank-run like behavior, which is a potential source of destabilization, bond fund managers hold a significant level of liquid assets, allowing them to manage redemptions without excessively liquidating corporate bonds. Second essay of this dissertation looks at corporate bond Exchange Traded Funds (ETFs) which are a new form of financial innovation. Since these investment vehicles are relatively new, little is known about their risks. In this paper, we study an event in the summer 2013, knows as the Taper Tantrum, when bond ETFs and mutual funds experienced massive unexpected outflows due to speculations about interest rate hikes. We find that ETF outflows during the Taper Tantrum lead to a significant increase in exposed corporate bond yields. The increase in yields lasts for seven months, which indicates a temporary fire sale effect. In contrast, we find no fire sale effect resulting from mutual fund outflows. We attribute this contrasting finding between the two vehicles to differences in portfolio construction and investor sensitivities. Finally, we study arbitrage opportunities, created by ETF shares mispricing, and their impact on bond yields. Third essay of this dissertation is about liquidity in the corporate bond market. In market distress, corporate bond investors tend to sell liquid assets and hold onto illiquid ones, a phenomenon which we call flight to illiquidity. We study the impact of flight to illiquidity on corporate bond prices/yields in cross-section as well as corporate bond returns in time-series. First, we show that liquidity price premium disappears in market distress, meaning that liquid bonds are not more expensive than illiquid bonds in distress times. Second, we show that illiquiduity return premium which exists during normal times, not only does not change sign or disappears, but also widens in market distress. In other words, liquid bonds deliver a lower return both on average and during market distress. This pattern is limited to investment grade corporate bonds. Our findings suggest that keeping the credit risk fixed, liquid bonds do not provide safety during the time it is needed the most. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. Carroll School of Management. / Discipline: Finance.

O regime de divulgação obrigatória de informações é tido como principal pilar regulatório do mercado de valores mobiliários. Esse status deriva, tradicionalmente, da acepção de que a prestação informacional em níveis satisfatórios viabiliza a adequada tomada de decisão dos investidores, constituindo importante mecanismo de proteção no âmbito do mercado de valores mobiliários, por garantir uma teórica igualdade de condições entre seus participantes, principalmente investidores, ofertantes, intermediários e emissores de valores mobiliários. Adicionalmente, à luz dos pressupostos da hipótese dos mercados eficientes, reputa-se que o regime de divulgação obrigatória de informações, ao garantir a atuação informada dos investidores, promove a eficiência informacional do mercado, contribuindo para que as informações disponíveis sobre determinado valor mobiliário sejam instantaneamente incorporadas ao seu preço, e, consequentemente, para sua precisão. Contudo, tal abordagem, fundamentada nas premissas de que o comportamento dos investidores aproxima-se daquele prescrito pela teoria da escolha racional, e de que a formação dos preços dos valores mobiliários negociados ocorre da forma como proposto pela hipótese dos mercados eficientes, desconsidera aspectos operacionais do mercado e comportamentais dos investidores, que fragilizam a funcionalidade do regime informacional obrigatório com relação à tomada de decisão dos investidores e à promoção da eficiência informacional do mercado. É primordial, assim, contemplar tal fragilidade quando da definição do conteúdo das obrigações informacionais, principalmente diante dos altos custos associados à produção e disseminação de determinadas informações que, teoricamente, seriam úteis à avaliação dos fundamentos econômicos dos valores mobiliários (como, por exemplo, aquelas cuja divulgação pode representar a perda de vantagens competitivas e a inibição do engajamento em projetos inovadores). Por outro lado, o regime informacional obrigatório exerce outras funções no âmbito do mercado de valores mobiliários, que devem ser igualmente consideradas na definição de sua orientação regulatória, dentre as quais incluem-se (i) a redução dos custos de monitoramento e a consequente redução dos custos de agência inerentes às companhias abertas; (ii) a promoção da confiança dos investidores no mercado de valores mobiliários; (iii) a administração da seleção adversa dos emissores de valores mobiliários; (iv) o auxílio no exercício das atividades regulatórias dos órgãos reguladores e autorreguladores; e (v) a viabilização do regime de responsabilidade aplicável aos emissores de valores mobiliários, e, na esfera das ofertas públicas de distribuição, aos ofertantes e às instituições intermediárias. A partir dessas ponderações, e do reconhecimento de que o regime informacional obrigatório presta-se a uma globalidade de funções distintas, que, conjuntamente, justificam seu status de principal ferramenta regulatória do mercado de valores mobiliários, o presente trabalho analisa a funcionalidade do regime aplicável às companhias abertas brasileiras. Concluiu-se, a partir do estudo do amplo arcabouço legal e regulatório definidor do conteúdo das obrigações informacionais as quais as companhias abertas brasileiras estão sujeitas, que o regime informacional atende satisfatoriamente à multiplicidade de funções que o justificam, principalmente após as recentes inovações trazidas pela ICVM 480. Entretanto, não obstante os benefícios gerados pela ampliação do conteúdo informacional obrigatório após a edição da referida norma, não se pode ignorar os potenciais efeitos perversos associados ao excesso de informações que dela podem advir. Adicionalmente, a inflexibilidade do regime informacional obrigatório aplicável às companhias abertas brasileiras, que não contempla diferenciais substantivos em função do porte das companhias, de seu estágio de desenvolvimento e do perfil dos investidores que subscrevem, adquirem ou negociam seus valores mobiliários, não se justifica sob uma ótica de custos e benefícios e certamente impede o acesso de diversas companhias ao mercado de valores mobiliários. / The mandatory disclosure regime is considered the cornerstone of securities regulation. Such status traditionally arises from the recognition that disclosure, in a satisfactory level, makes feasible a precise decision making by investors, establishing an important protection mechanism on securities market once it guarantees a theoretical parity among its participants, mainly investors, offerors and issuers. Additionally, under the assumptions of the efficient market hypothesis, mandatory disclosure regime (guarantying an informed performance of investors), promotes informational efficiency on securities market, allowing instantaneous incorporation of available information to securities prices and, as a consequence, its enhancement. Notwithstanding, such approach, mainly based on the assumption that investors behavior is close to the prescriptions of rational choice theory, and price formation of securities traded occurs as provided by efficient market hypothesis, does not take into consideration some aspects associated with the operation of securities market and behavior of investors that mitigates the functionality of mandatory disclosure regime related to investors decision making and promotion of informational efficiency of securities market. In this sense, the recognition of such aspect on the definition of informational requirements applicable to issuers is essential, mainly in face of the high costs associated with production and dissemination of some information that, theoretically, are useful to valuation of the economic fundamentals of securities (as, for example, information that, once disclosed, may harm competitive advantages of the issuer or discourage engagement in innovative projects). On the other hand, mandatory disclosure regime performs other important functions that shall be equally considered on the definition of its regulatory approach, including (i) reduction of monitoring costs and, as a consequence, of agency costs within publicly traded companies; (ii) promotion of investor confidence on securities market; (iii) management of adverse selection of securities issuers; (iv) assistance to regulatory activities of securities regulators and self-regulatory organizations; and (v) making feasible the liability regime applicable to securities issuers, and, in the scope of public offerings, to offerors and underwriters. Based on these considerations and on the recognition that mandatory disclosure regime serves multiple and different functions that, together, justify its status of main regulatory instrument of securities market, this essay analyses the functionality of mandatory disclosure regime applicable to Brazilian publicly-traded companies. It concludes, departing from the study of the extensive legal and regulatory framework that defines information requirements applicable to Brazilian publicly traded companies, that mandatory disclosure regime satisfies the multiple functions above mentioned, specially after the recent innovations implemented by CVM Rule 480/09. However, despite all benefits arising from the extension of the disclosure regime implemented by the abovementioned rule, potential negative effects associated to overload of information that my emerge from such regulation shall not be ignored. In addition, the inflexibility of the mandatory disclosure regime applicable to Brazilian publicly traded companies, which does not considers tiered requirements according to the size and/or stage of development of companies and sophistication of investors that subscribe, acquire or trade with their securities, is not justified by a cost-benefit standpoint and certainly avoids access of many companies to securities market.