La spermatogenèse est le processus par lequel les cellules germinales se différencient pour former les spermatozoides. Elle se déroule à l’intérieur des tubes séminifères. Pendant la période embryonnaire, les précurseurs des cellules germinales adultes constituent un pool de cellules appelées cellules germinales primordiales (Primordial Germ Cells, PGCs), qui vont migrer pour aller coloniser les gonades (Durcova-Hills and Capel, 2008; Surani et al., 2008). Au cours de leur migration, les PGCs vont subir une reprogrammation épigénétique de l’ensemble de leur génome, qui leur sera nécessaire pour passer de l’état somatique à l’état de totipotence (Ohinata et al., 2005). Durant cette reprogrammation, l’ADN est massivement démethylé, entrainant l’activation de plusieurs gènes qui sont importants pour le développement des PGCs, mais également l’activation des éléments transposables (ETs) (Hajkova et al., 2008; Sasaki and Matsui, 2008; Surani and Hajkova, 2010). Ces derniers constituent environ 50% du génome des mammifères. Ils sont subdivisés en deux classes et sont connus par leur capacité à être mobilisés dans le génome (Zamudio and Bourc'his, 2010). Cette mobilisation se fait au hasard et constitue ainsi un risque considérable de mutations, qui peuvent provoquer des tumeurs, des pathologies de développement et une infertilité (Zamudio and Bourc'his, 2010). Pour cela, leur expression doit être contrôlée pour maintenir l’intégrité du génome de la lignée germinale. Pour toutes ces raisons, les PGCs ainsi que les cellules germinales en cours de méiose ont développé des stratégies de défenses pour contrôler la mobilisation et l’expression des ETs basées entre autre sur la voie des piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) (Chuma and Pillai, 2009; Pillai and Chuma, 2012b). Dans le laboratoire du Pr. Stéphane Viville, mes travaux de thèse se sont concentrés sur l’étude d’un gène nommé Tex19 pour Testis Expressed gene chez la souris. Nous avons démontré que ce gène est spécifique des mammifères et est dupliqué chez le rat et la souris en deux paralogues nommés Tex19.1 et Tex19.2. Deux domaines hautement conservés ont été identifiés par alignement multiple des protéines TEX19 et nommés MCP et VPTEL. Ces domaines ne présentent aucune homologie avec des domaines déjà caractérisés, prévenant ainsi toute prédiction de leurs fonctions (Kuntz et al., 2008). L’étude du profil d’expression de Tex19.1 et Tex19.2 a montré que ces deux gènes sont exprimés dans l’ectoderme et les PGCs. Ils sont aussi co-exprimés dans le testicule de l’âge embryonnaire à l’âge adulte. Néanmoins, seul Tex19.1 est exprimé dans les ovaires et le précurseur du placenta appelé cône ectoplacentaire (Celebi et al., 2012). Le knockout (KO) de Tex19.1 provoque une infertilité masculine chez la souris avec un arrêt de la spermatogenèse au stade pachytène, accompagnée d’une surexpression d’un rétrotransposon, MMERVK10C (Ollinger et al., 2008). Récemment, il a été démontré que Tex19.1 joue aussi un rôle dans le développement du placenta (Reichmann et al., 2013). Au cours de mes trois années de thèse, nous avons approfondie l’étude du KO de Tex19.1dans le testicule, les cellules embryonnaires souches (Embryonic Stem Cells, ESCs) et le placenta (Tarabay et al., 2013). Nous avons également étudié le phénotype observé suite au double KO de Tex19.1 et Tex19.2. [...] / We recently characterized two new mammalian specific genes, Tex19.1 and its paralog Tex19.2. Both genes are expressed in pachytene spermatocytes in adult testes. In addition, Tex19.1 is expressed in pluripotent cells (ES, EG, iPS and PGC cells), the inner cell mass of the blastocysts and the placenta. In order to decipher Tex19 functions, we generate three types of knockout (KO): i) KO of Tex19.1 ii) KO of Tex19.2 iii) double KO (DKO) of both genes. All Tex19.1-/- KO animals are growth-retarded and half of them die just after birth. This phenotype is probably linked to placenta defects. Surviving adults Tex19.1-/- KO males display a variable spermatogenesis phenotype, associated with an up-regulation of one endogenous retrovirus, MMERVK10C. Tex19.2 KO mice exhibit a subtle phenotype. Few seminiferous epitheliums are degenerated while the rest appear normal. DKO show a fully penetrant phenotype similar to the most severe Tex19.1-/- phenotype. DKO males exhibit small testes. Despite the presence of spermatogonia and spermatocytes, spermatogenesis is blocked at the pachytene stage. By RNA deep-sequencing on 10 days old DKO and WT testes, prior to histological phenotype, 114 genes are significantly up-regulated and 320 genes significantly down-regulated in the DKO compared to the WT. Gene ontology analyses show that among of these genes, two essential pathways are altered: meiosis and the piRNA pathway. Consistent with that, GST-pulldown and immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrate that MIWI, MILI, MAEL and MVH are partners of TEX19. Considering PIWI proteins function in the silencing of transposable elements through the piRNA pathway, we checked if TEX19 paralogs bind piRNA. By immunoprecipitation using WT and KO testes, we show that both TEX19.1 and TEX19.2 bind small RNA of 30 nucleotides through their VPTEL domain. This study highlights the pivot role of Tex19 paralogs in three essential functions of mammalian life cycle, i.e. pluripotency, placenta-supported in utero growth and fertility. The functional similarities of both paralogs, through the expression control of one endogenous retrovirus and the binding of piRNAs, lead us to propose that Tex19 paralogs are new members of the piRNA pathway.

Elementos transponíveis (TEs) são sequências de DNA que possuem a capacidade de transposição no genoma hospedeiro. O principal objetivo deste trabalho reside na investigação em torno de possíveis contribuições de TEs nos genomas das algas C. reinhardtii e V. carteri, mais especificamente, na arquitetura dos genes ortólogos nestas espécies. Neste contexto, análises em sílico em larga escala foram realizadas, buscando-se identificar associações entre TEs e os genes ortólogos. Os resultados indicaram que os genes em C. reinhardtii tendem a acumular mais cópias de TEs em relação aos seus ortólogos em V. carteri. C. reinhardtii apresentou maior densidade de cópias de TEs para as regiões flanqueadora 5´ , flanqueadora 3´ e intrônica quando comparada a V. carteri; o inverso foi verificado quando analisada a densidade de TEs nas regiões codificantes. Análises para apurar a distribuição dos elementos em regiões intergênicas e intragênicas foram estabelecidas, nas quais a frequência observada dos elementos foi comparada à frequência esperada segundo a distribuição randômica de TEs no genoma, simulada computacionalmente. Foram constatadas regiões em que a presença dos elementos encontra-se significativamente abaixo do esperado, a exemplo de intervalos adjacentes ao início e ao término dos genes, o que provavelmente reflete a seleção negativa de eventos de integração nestas delimitações, em virtude dos efeitos deletérios associados à disrupção de estruturas de regulação da expressão gênica. De forma geral, nas regiões flanqueadoras 5´ e 3´, foi identificada a tendência de elevação da frequência padronizada de TEs à medida que a classe de distância avaliada se distancia do início e do término do gene, respectivamente. A baixa representatividade dos elementos também foi constatada em regiões intragênicas. O estudo da distribuição de TEs nos íntrons dos genes ortólogos indicou a preservação destas regiões quanto à fixação de TEs, sendo a representatividade abaixo do esperado mais evidente em intervalos adjacentes ao éxon, o que minimiza a chance de ruptura no padrão de splicing dos genes. Em sequências codificantes, a escassez de TEs - esperada devido ao provável efeito deletério destes eventos para a função do gene - foi constatada nos ortólogos das duas espécies. No entanto, inovações decorrentes da integração dos elementos em regiões codificantes podem resultar em efeitos evolutivos positivos, embora estes eventos sejam raros. Nas espécies analisadas foram identificados dois casos, de especial interesse, em que um domínio da sequência peptídica encontra-se localizado em região derivada de TE: o primeiro refere-se ao gene Cre06.g262800, em C. reinhardtii, no qual foi identificado o domínio PHD-finger associadao ao elemento Gypsy-5-LTR_CR; o segundo remete ao gene Vocar20001092m.g, em V. carteri, no qual o domínio zinc knuckle foi reconhecido em região derivada do elemento Gypsy3-LTR_VC. Estes genes constituem exemplos da contribuição de TEs na evolução de sequências codificadoras nas espécies C. reinhardtii e V. carteri, corroborando a hipótese de que os TEs podem contribuir na evolução da arquitetura dos genes, apesar do efeito disruptivo inerente à integração dos mesmos em regiões gênicas. / Transposable elements (TEs) are DNA sequences able to transpose in the host genome. The aim of this study resides in the investigation of TEs contributions in the algae C. reinhardtii and V. carteri genomes, more specifically in the architecture of orthologous genes in these species. In this context, large scale in silico analysis were performed to identify associations between TEs and orthologous genes. The results indicated that genes in the C. reinhardtii specie tend to accumulate more TEs copies than orthologous genes in V. carteri. C. reinhardtii showed higher density of TEs copies in the 5´ flanking, 3´ flanking and intronic regions when compared to V. carteri; the opposite was observed in coding regions. Investigation of the elements distribution in the intergenic and intragenic regions was performed, in which the observed TE frequency was compared to expected TE frequency from the simulated random distribution of the elements in the genome. It was verified regions where TE frequency was significantly lower than expected, as in gene boundaries adjacencies, probably reflecting a negative selection of the TE integration events in these delimitations due to deleterious effects associated with disruption of gene regulatory structures. In general terms, it was observed an increasing standardized frequency in the 5´ and 3´ flanking regions as the distance from gene start and gene end, respectively, increases. TEs underrepresentation was also verified in the intragenic regions. The study of TEs distribution in the introns of orthologous genes revealed the preservation of these structures in relation to TEs fixation, with a stronger underrepresentation near exon, which minimizes the chance of gene splicing pattern disruption. In the coding sequences, the TEs scarcity - expected due the likely deleterious effects to gene function - was verified in the orthologous of both species. However, in rare instances, innovations mediated by TEs integration in the coding regions can lead to positive evolutionary effects. In the species analyzed two instances of particular interest were observed, in which the domain of peptide sequence is located in the region derived from TE. The first one refers to the Cre06.g262800 gene, in the C. reinhardtii specie, which has a PHD-finger domain associated with Gypsy-5-LTR_CR element. The second one refers to the Vocar20001092m.g gene, in V. carteri, in which the zinc knuckle was recognized in region derived from Gypsy3-LTR_VC element. These genes are examples of TEs contributions in the evolution of coding sequences in the C. reinhardtii and V. carteri species, corroborating the hypothesis that TEs can contribute to the evolution of gene architecture, despite the inherent disruptive effect in their integration in the gene regions.

SETMAR est un gène chimérique constitué d’un domaine SET (codant des fonctions d’histone méthylase) et du domaine MAR (ayant conservé certaines fonctions de la transposase HsMAR1). Des études ont montré que les deux domaines sont biologiquement actifs et sont impliqués dans la stabilité et/ou dans la régulation de l’expression du génome humain. La littérature suggère que l’expression de SETMAR est plus forte dans les cellules cancéreuses que dans les cellules saines. Notre hypothèse de travail est que la protéine SETMAR est surexprimée en conditions pathologiques, permettant aux cellules de franchir les points de contrôle du cycle cellulaire, contribuant ainsi à augmenter l’instabilité génétique. Notre objectif est d’étudier la régulation de l’expression de SETMAR et son implication dans l’oncogenèse, gliale en particulier. / SETMAR is a chimeric gene consisting of a SET domain (encoding methylase histone functions) and a MAR domain (having retained some of the of the HsMAR1 transposase functions). Studies have shown that the two domains are biologically active and are involved in the stability and / or in the regulation of the human genome expression. The literature suggests that SETMAR expression is higher in cancer cells than in normal cells. Our working hypothesis is that SETMAR protein is overexpressed in pathological conditions, allowing cells to overcome the cellular cycle checkpoints, helping to increase the genetic instability. Our goal is to study the regulation of the SETMAR expression and its involvement in oncogenesis, glial in particular.

Le développement de la seconde génération de séquenceurs haut débit a généralisé l'accès à l'étude du transcriptome via le protocole RNAseq. Celui-ci permet d'obtenir à la fois la séquence et l'abondance des transcrits d'un échantillon. De nombreuses méthodes bioinformatiques ont été et sont encore développées pour permettre l'analyse des données issues du RNAseq et en tirer le maximum d'information. Ce type d'analyse est notamment possible sans utiliser de génome de référence, et donc pour les espèces modèles ou non-modèles, grâce à des méthodes d'assemblage. Durant ma thèse, j'ai principalement travaillé à partir de données RNA-seq issues d'espèces non modèles. Je me suis intéressée dans un premier temps à l'impacte de l'hybridation inter spécifique sur la stabilité des génomes chez les hybrides issus des croisements réciproques de D. mojavensis et D. arizonae. Nos résultats ne montrent pas une dérégulation globale, mais plutôt quelques gènes et éléments transposables qui sont spécifiquement dérégulés. La pipeline d'analyse mis en place ici sera réutilisée pour l'étude des niveaux d'expression des transcrits chez les mâles ainsi que pour les croisements issus d'autres lignées de D. mojavensis avec D. arizonae, conduisant à une fertilité variable chez les hybrides.Dans un second temps, j'ai participé à la validation du logiciel KisSplice pour la détection de SNP dans des données RNA-seq sans génome de référence. Celui-ci permet de trouver différents types de variants (épissage, indels) directement dans le graphe de de Bruijn construit à partir des lectures séquencées. J'ai également participé au développement d'outils de post-traitement permettant de prédire l'impact des SNP sur les protéines / Next-generation high throughput sequencing technologies provide efficient, rapid, and low cost access to sequencing. Its application to transcriptomes, called RNA-seq, enables the study of both the sequence and the expression of the transcripts. Many bio-informatics methods are still developed for RNA-seq data processing, trying to get the maximum out of it. Assembly methods allow us to study non-model species (no reference genome available) as well as model species. The work presented here is mostly related to RNA-seq data on non-model species.In the first study, to understand the initiation of hybrid incompatibility, we performed a genome-wide transcriptomic analysis on ovaries from parental lines and on hybrids from reciprocal crosses of \emph{D. mojavensis} and \emph{D. arizonae}. We didn't see a global deregerulation of genes or transposable element. Instead, we show that reciprocal hybrids presented specific gene categories and few transposable element families misexpressed relative to the parental lines. The analytical workflow developed for this project will be used to analyze transcriptomic data from the testis, but also to study the reciprocal crosses from other lines of D. mojavensis with D. arizonae leading to variable levels of sterility in hybrids. A second project tacked here is the identification and quantification of SNPs from RNA-seq data without a reference genome with KisSplice. Kissplice was developed to identified several type of variants (splicing events, indels) directly from the de Bruijn graph, build from the sequenced reads. We also developed other KisSplice-tools, for downstream analyses of the SNPs, including the prediction of their impact on the protein sequence

The regulation and evolution of the inverted repeat transposable element Tel, found in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, was studied. The stability of Tel elements in the N2 strain genome was investigated by cloning seventeen N2 Tel elements. To examine their structural integrity, sixteen cloned N2 Tel elements were restriction mapped and, in the case of some variants, their DNA was partially sequenced. Two restriction site variants, Tcl(Eco).12 and Tcl(Hpa-).9, were found. Tel(1.5).10b had lost 89 bp from one end, while Tcl(1.7).28 contained a 55 bp insertion. Two additional elements, Tcl(0.9).2 and Tcl(0.9).14, had different internal deletions. Each element was about 900 bp in length. The majority of Tel elements cloned from the N2 strain were found to have identical restriction maps. Somatic excision of Tel elements in the N2 genome was demonstrated. Tel elements in N2 are apparently both structurally and functionally intact. Nevertheless, mobilization of Tel elements in the N2 germline is restricted. Two new transposable element families, Barney (also known as TCbl) and TCb2, were discovered in a closely related nematode, Caenorhabditis briggsae due to Tel identity. These two families, distinguished through differential inter-element hybridization, showed multiple banding differences between strains. The open reading frames (ORFs) of Tel and Barney share 71% DNA sequence and 74% amino acid sequence identity. The putative terminus of Barney exhibits 68% identity with the 54 bp terminal repeat of Tel. Partial sequencing of TCb2 revealed that its ORF is equally diverged from Barney and Tel. The basis of the sequence heterogeneity observed in the C. briggsae transposons and not in the C. elegans transposons could be due to either horizontal transfer or alternate paths of divergence. Significant sequence identity was found between Tel, Barney, and HB1 (a transposable element from Drosophila melanogaster) within their coding regions and terminal repeats. These sequence similarities define a subclass of inverted repeat transposable elements inhabiting two different phylla, Arthropoda and Nematoda. / Medicine, Faculty of / Medical Genetics, Department of / Graduate

The repetitive sequence composes nearly half of human and mouse genome, most of which are scattered repeats of transposable elements (TEs). The non-LTR retrotransposons are the most accumulated TEs in the mammalian genome and L1s are the most active and abundant autonomous retrotransposons. L1s are highly activated during the epigenetic reprogramming of early mammalian embryos and have the highest level of expression among all retrotransposons throughout the preimplantation state. Moreover, the reprogramming of somatic cells into iPSCs is associated with an increase in L1 expression. The transcription of L1 during the early embryogenesis is necessary to regulate developmental genes and prevent heterochromatin formation to maintain cellular pluripotency state, that guarantying an appropriate future differentiation. However, the role of L1 reactivation during the somatic cell reprogramming remains unclear. Therefore, aim of this work is to study the impact of L1 transcription during the reprogramming process of the iPSCs. We used CRISPR-mediated gene activation (CRISPRa) system that fuse a deactivated Cas9 (dCas9) with transactivation domains (VPR). We confirm the ability to overexpress L1 in Human Embryonic Kidney cells (HEK293) and Human Dermal Fibroblasts (HDFs) by utilizing CRISPR activation system and this will provide a good opportunity to study the role of L1 transcripts during the reprogramming of HDFs into iPSCs. Furthermore, we established stable HDFs that able to express combinations of “Yamanaka” reprogramming factors. The model system will allow to investigate the effect of overexpressing L1 with reprogramming factors to answer the question of whether L1 can trigger or facilitate the reprogramming processes and its underlying mechanism.

No description available.

Les éléments transposables (ET) sont des éléments génétiques ubiquitaires et potentiellement mobiles dans les génomes eucaryotes. Les génomes hôtes ont développé des mécanismes épigénétiques pour contrôler et prévenir la prolifération des ET. Néanmoins, certains ET semblent capables de s’activer en réponses à des stress ou à des facteurs développementaux. Les méthodes disponibles pour détecter l’activité transpositionnelle d’un ET sont souvent limitées au stade transcriptionnel ou sont adaptées à des génomes de petite taille. Relativement peu d’ET sont actuellement connus pour être actifs et les mécanismes spécifiques qui les contrôlent ne sont pas clairement identifiés.Durant mes travaux de thèse, nous avons développé une stratégie de séquençage à haut débit qui permet la détection d’ADN extrachromosomique circulaire (ADNecc) témoignant notamment de l’activité des ET et de la stabilité d’un génome. Ainsi nous avons pu caractériser chez plusieurs espèces le mobilome, défini comme l’ensemble des ADNecc présents dans un tissu.La technique du mobilome-seq s’est avérée être un outil puissant pour la détection des ET actifs notamment chez le riz asiatique Oryza sativa. Notre analyse du mobilome a permis l’identification d’un rétrotransposon PopRice actif dans l’albumen (tissu nourricier du grain) chez différentes variétés de riz. Pour la première fois chez les plantes, nous avons également détecté des insertions somatiques d’ET par re-séquençage de génome entier. À partir de nos résultats, nous avons combiné nos données mobilomiques avec une analyse GWAS pour proposer des pistes afin d’identifier de nouveaux mécanismes de régulation de cet élément.En parallèle, nous avons appliqué la technique du mobilome-seq à différents organismes animaux et végétaux révélant ainsi des spécificités de mobilome propre à chaque espèce. Nos travaux en collaboration avec d’autres équipes ont notamment contribué à préciser le rôle de l’ARN polymérase II dans le contrôle des ET chez O. sativa et à mettre en évidence le lien entre la présence d’ADNecc viral et la réponse immunitaire chez Drosophila melanogaster.Mes travaux de thèse ouvrent des perspectives pour l’étude du mobilome, ce répertoire génomique encore largement inexploré et qui se révèle être à la fois une source d’information au niveau des mouvements des ET mais aussi de la stabilité des génomes. L’étude future des mobilomes promet d’apporter des réponses sur notre compréhension de la dynamique des génomes. / Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic elements that constitute a major part of eukaryotic genomes. Host genomes have developed epigenetic mechanisms to control and prevent their proliferation. While efficiently silenced by the epigenetic machinery, they can be reactivated upon stress or at precise developmental stages. However, available methods to detect TE activity are often limited to transcriptional level or more adapted to small genomes. Today, only few TEs are known to be active and specific mechanisms controlling TEs are not well defined. 
To address this question during my phD, we developed a strategy of high throughput sequencing that detects extrachromosomal circular DNA (eccDNA) forms which reflect TE activity and genome stability. We characterised mobilomes from different organisms defined as all eccDNA in a cell. 
Our mobilome-seq technique successfully identified active TEs especially in asian rice Oryza sativa. We identified an active retrotransposon PopRice in endosperm tissue from different rice varieties. Interestingly and for the first time in plants, we detected somatic insertions from genome- wide resequencing. We combined our mobilome-seq results with a GWAS analysis to propose new PopRice regulation mechanisms. 
 In a second step, we applied our mobilome seq technique to different animal and plant organisms showing mobilome specificities from each species. Our work in collaboration with different labs help contributed to define role of RNA polymerase II in the control of TEs in O. sativa and have revealed a link between presence of eccDNA from virus and immune response in Drosophila melanogaster. 
Altogether, our mobilome-sequencing method opens the possibility to explore unexplored genomic compartment. Future mobilome analysis represents new possibilities to improve our understanding of dynamics of genomes.

A comprehensive understanding about how genetic variants and mutations contribute to phenotypic variations and alterations entails experimental technologies and analytical methodologies that are able to detect genetic variants/mutations from various biological samples in a timely and accurate manner. High-throughput sequencing technology represents the latest achievement in a series of efforts to facilitate genetic variants discovery and genotyping and promises to transform the way we tackle healthcare and biomedical problems. The tremendous amount of data generated by this new technology, however, needs to be processed and analyzed in an accurate and efficient way in order to fully harness its potential. Structural variation (SV) encompasses a wide range of genetic variations with different sizes and generated by diverse mechanisms. Due to the technical difficulties of reliably detecting SVs, their characterization lags behind that of SNPs and indels. In this dissertation I presented two novel computational methods: one for detecting transposable element (TE) transpositions and the other for detecting SVs in general using a local assembly approach. Both methods are able to pinpoint breakpoint junctions at single-nucleotide resolution and estimate variant allele frequencies in the sample. I also applied those methods to study the impact of TE transpositions on the genomic stability, the inheritance patterns of TE insertions in the population and the molecular mechanisms and potential functional consequences of somatic SVs in cancer genomes.

No description available.