京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第24814号 / 工博第5157号 / 新制||工||1985(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科高分子化学専攻 / (主査)教授 山子 茂, 教授 辻井 敬亘, 教授 大内 誠 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

Measuring void fraction distribution in two-phase flow has been a challenging task for many decades because of its complex and fast-changing interfacial structure. In this study, a non-intrusive X-ray measurement system is developed and calibrated to mitigate this challenge. This approach has several advantages over the conventional methods such as the multi-sensor conductivity probe, wire-mesh sensor, impedance void meter, or direct optical imaging. The X-ray densitometry technique is non-intrusive, insensitive to flow regime changes, capable of measuring high temperature or high-pressure flows, and has reasonable penetration depth. With the advancement of detector technology, the system developed in this work can further achieve high spatial resolution (100 micron per pixel) and high temporal resolution (1000 frames per second). This work mainly focuses on the following aspects of the system development: establishing a geometrical model for the line detector system, conducting spectral analysis for X-ray attenuation in two-phase flow, and performing calibration tests. The geometrical model has considered the measurement plane, geometry of the test-section wall and flow channel, relative position of the X-ray source and detector pixels. By assuming axisymmetry, an algorithm has been developed to convert void fraction distribution along the detector pixels to the radial void profile in a circular pipe. The X-ray spectral analysis yielded a novel prediction model for non-chromatic X-rays and non-uniform structure materials such as the internal two-phase flow which contains gas, liquid and solid wall materials. A calibration experiment has been carried out to optimize the detector conversion factor for each detector pixels. Finally, the data measured by the developed X-ray system are compared with the double-sensor conductivity probe and gas flow meter for sample bubbly flow and slug flow conditions. The results show reasonable agreement between these different measuring techniques. / Master of Science / Two-phase flow is a widely observed phenomenon in a nuclear reactor operation and thermal hydraulic applications during thermal energy transfer process. Hence, precise understanding of two-phase flow model is essential to a thermal hydraulic design and safe operation of nuclear reactor operation systems. However, two-phase flow analysis, via measuring void fraction distribution of a two-phase flow, has been a challenging task for many decades because of its complex and dynamical interfacial characteristics. In this study, a nonintrusive X-ray measuring technique is developed to mitigate some of the conventional challenges of void fraction measurement of a two-phase flow. The void fraction imagery via X-ray densitometry technique is insensitive to flow regime changes at high temperature or high pressure flows conditions with reasonable penetration depth capabilities. Together, with the advanced detector technology and spectral analysis of the X-ray attenuation in two-phase flow, this study delivers both qualitative and quantitative geometrical model for the line detector system to provide a radial void profile of a circular pipe. Moreover, the X-ray spectral analysis yielded a novel prediction model of a non-chromatic X-rays and non-uniform structure materials such as the internal two-phase flow which contains gas, liquid, and solid pipe materials. A calibration experiment has been carried out to optimize the detector conversion factor for each detector pixels. Finally, the data measured by the developed X-ray system are compared with the double-sensor conductivity probe and gas flow meter for sample bubbly flow and slug flow conditions. The results show reasonable agreement between these different measuring techniques.

[pt] Neste trabalho é apresentada a implementação e aplicação de uma técnica experimental ótica, já descrita na literatura, para a medição instantânea do campo de velocidades gerado em escoamento bifásico líquido-gás. O trabalho concentrou-se no regime de escoamento em golfadas. Água e ar foram utilizados como fluidos de trabalho nos testes. A técnica implementada combina Velocimetria por Imagem de Partículas (PIV - Particle Image Velocimetry), com Fluorescência Induzida por Laser (LIF - Laser Induced Fluorescence) e Iluminação Pulsada de Fundo (PST - Pulsed Shadow Technique), o que permite determinar simultaneamente o campo instantâneo de velocidade na água gerado pela passagem da bolha de ar, assim como a forma e velocidade da bolha. Processamento digital de imagens foi utilizado para extrair as informações sobre o campo de velocidade do líquido e as características da bolha. A técnica implementada foi aplicada no escoamento gerado pela passagem de uma bolha de gás em uma coluna de líquido estagnado. A técnica PIV foi utilizada para determinar o campo de velocidades na fase líquida iluminando-se o escoamento com um plano de luz laser pulsada. O uso de partículas fluorescentes em conjunto com filtros óticos posicionados em frente a uma câmera digital permitiram suprimir a reflexão intensa proveniente das interfaces líquido-gás e das paredes do tubo. Entretanto, esta técnica não é capaz de determinar a exata posição da interface líquido-gás. O uso da iluminação pulsada de fundo proveniente de um painel de LEDs permite a visualização da interface gáslíquido com boa definição. Uma única câmera digital posicionada ortogonalmente ao plano de luz laser e em oposição ao painel de LEDs foi usada para o registro das imagens. Os resultados obtidos revelaram com excelente resolução os detalhes do escoamento na esteira, filme na parede e nariz de uma bolha ascendente, comprovando a eficácia da técnica implementada. / [en] This work presents the implementation of a non-intrusive optical technique for measuring the hydrodynamic characteristics of liquid- gas, two-phase flows. The work was limited to the study of air-water slug flows. The technique implemented, already described in the literature, combines Particle Image Velocimetry - PIV, Laser Induced Fluorescence - LIF, and pulsed background illumination, known as Pulsed Shadow Technique - PST. The combination of these techniques allows the simultaneous measurement of the instantaneous flow field generated in the liquid by the passage of the air bubble, together with the shape and velocity of the bubble. The technique was employed in the study of an air bubble rising in a stagnant liquid layer. The PIV technique was employed in the determination of the instantaneous flow field in the liquid using fluorescent particles illuminated by a pulsed laser sheet. An optical high-pass filter was used to block the light scattered by the air-water interfaces and by the pipe walls, allowing the digital camera employed to only capture the particle positions. A LED panel furnished back illumination at a wave length that passed through the high-pass filter and allowed an accurate determination of the bubble shape. A digital image processing procedure was employed to determine the bubble shape, velocity and liquid flow field. The results obtained revealed, with excellent resolution, the details of the liquid flow at the wake, wall film and nose of the rising bubble, thereby attesting to the quality of the technique implemented.

Escoamentos bifásicos do tipo gás-líquido são encontrados em diversas aplicações. Na indústria petrolífera esses escoamentos são comumente encontrados em tubulações, como por exemplo, na extração e processamento de óleo e gás. No passado, diversos estudos foram realizados para investigar escoamentos bifásicos sobre condições controladas em pequenas e médias plantas de teste, onde os fluidos utilizados são frequentemente água e gás. Esses estudos dão suporte para o desenvolvimento de modelos de escoamento e correlações de engenharia. Nesse trabalho é descrito um sistema de aquisição e gerenciamento de dados experimentais, que possui 4 sensores distribuídos (expansível para até 32) conectados através de um barramento CAN (Controller Area Network). O sistema de gerenciamento foi desenvolvido utilizando tecnologias web, permitindo conexões simultâneas e acesso remoto através do navegador, provendo uma plataforma completa para aquisição, armazenamento, e compartilhamento de dados experimentais. O princípio de funcionamento dos sensores é baseado na medição da variação da condutividade elétrica do meio, permitindo diferenciar as fases líquida e gasosa num escoamento bifásico água-ar. Os sensores resistivos possuem baixo custo de fabricação, são minimamente invasivos, e possuem alta resolução temporal (2 kHz). O protocolo CAN foi escolhido por cobrir grandes distâncias, ter alta velocidade de transferência e baixo custo de implementação. Todos os dados experimentais coletados são armazenados em um banco de dados centralizado, permitindo visualização e acesso de qualquer computador que tenha acesso ao sistema. Resultados iniciais constataram o potencial da plataforma como um sistema flexível e confiável para investigação de escoamentos e gerenciamento de dados experimentais. / Two-phase gas-liquid flows are found in many industrial applications. In the petroleum industry, two phase flow are usually encountered confined to pipes, for instance, in oil and gas extraction and processing. In the past, several studies have been performed to investigate two-phase flows under controlled conditions at small and medium scale test facilities, whereas working fluids are often water and air. Such studies support the development of flow models and engineering correlations. In this work, a data acquisition and management system is introduced, in which 4 distributed sensors (expansible to up 32 sensors) are connected through a CAN bus. The data management system was developed using web technologies, allowing multiple simultaneous connections, providing a complete platform to acquire, store, visualize and share experimental data. The sensors’ operating principle is based on measurement of electrical conductivity of flowing media in order to distinguish liquid and gaseous phase in a two-phase air-water flow. The resistive sensors are low cost, minimally invasive, and have high temporal resolution (2 kHz). CAN bus protocol was chosen due to its robustness and possibility to cover long distances at high data transfer. All collected data are stored in a centralized database, allowing online visualization, and access to experimental data from external network. Initial results have shown the potential of the proposed platform as a flexible and reliable system for two-phase flow investigation and the associated data management.

Cette thèse est consacrée au développement et à la comparaison des méthodes de suivi d'interface pour les écoulements diphasiques incompressibles. Elle s'intéresse à la sélection de méthodes robustes de suivi d'interface, puis à leur couplage avec le solveur des équations de Navier-Stokes. La méthode level-set est en premier lieu étudiée, en particulier l'influence du schéma d'advection et de l'étape de réinitialisation sur la qualité des résultats du suivi d'interface. Il a été montré que la méthode de réinitialisation avec contrainte de volume est robuste et précise en combinaison avec des schémas conservatifs WENO d'ordre 5 pour l'advection. Il a été constaté que les erreurs du suivi d'interface augmentent de manière abrupte lorsque la condition CFL est trop petite. Comme remède, la réinitialisation du champ level-set effectuée moins souvent réduit la diffusion numérique et le déplacement non-physique de l'interface. La conservation de la masse n'est pas assurée avec les méthodes level-set. Les méthodes VOF (volume-of-fluid) qui conservent naturellement la masse du fluide de référence sont alors étudiées. Une résolution géométrique avec un schéma consistent et conservatif est alors adoptée, ainsi qu'une autre technique alternative plus aisément extensible en 3D. Il a été trouvé que ces deux dernières méthodes donnent des résultats très proches. La méthode MOF (moment-of-fluid), qui reconstruit l'interface en utilisant le centre de masse du fluide de référence, est plus précise que les méthodes VOF. Différentes méthodes couplées entre level-set et VOF sont alors étudiées, notamment: CLSVOF, MCLS, VOSET et CLSMOF. Il a été observé que la méthode level-set tend à épaissir les filaments minces, tandis que VOF et les méthodes couplées les fragmentent en petites particules. Finalement, on a couplé les méthodes level-set et VOF avec le solveur incompressible des équations de Navier-Stokes. On a comparé différentes manières de prise en compte des conditions de saut à l'interface (lisse et raide). Il a été montré que les méthodes VOF sont plus robustes, et donnent d'excellents résultats pour quasiment toutes les simulations. Deux méthodes level-set donnant de très bons résultats, comparables à ceux de VOF, sont aussi identifiées. / This thesis is devoted to the development and comparison of interface methods for incompressible two-phase flows. It focuses on the selection of robust interface capturing methods, then on the manner of their coupling with the Navier-stokes solver. The level-set method is first investigated, in particular the influence of the advection scheme and the reinitialization step on the accuracy of the interface capturing. It is shown that the volume constraint method for reinitialization is robust and accurate in combination with the conservative fifth-order WENO schemes for the advection. It is found that interface errors increase drastically when the CFL number is very small. As a remedy, reinitializing the level-set field less often reduces the amount of numerical diffusion and non-physical interface displacement. Mass conservation is, however, not guaranteed with the level-set methods. The volume-of-fluid (VOF) method is then investigated, which naturally conserves the mass of the reference fluid. A geometrical consistent and conservative scheme is adopted, then an alternative technique more easily extended to 3D. It is found that both methods give very similar results. The moment-of-fluid (MOF) method, which reconstructs the interface using the reference fluid centroid, is found to be more accurate than the VOF methods. Different coupled level-set and VOF methods are then investigated, namely: CLSVOF, MCLS, VOSET and CLSMOF. It is observed that the level-set method tends to thicken thin filaments, whereas the VOF and coupled methods break up thin structures in small fluid particles. Finally, we coupled the level-set and volume-of-fluid methods with the incompressible Navier-Stokes solver. We compared different manners (sharp and smoothed) of treating the interface jump conditions. It is shown that the VOF methods are more robust, and provide excellent results for almost all the performed simulations. Two level-set methods are also identified that give very good results, comparable to those obtained with the VOF methods.

Escoamentos bifásicos líquido-gás estão presentes na natureza e em muitas atividades industriais. Neste tipo de escoamento, as fases líquida e gasosa podem assumir diferentes configurações espaciais dentro da tubulação, chamadas padrões de escoamento. O escoamento bifásico líquido-gás em golfadas é o padrão de escoamento mais frequente nas aplicações industriais, ocorrendo em uma ampla faixa de velocidades das fases segundo os estudos de diversos autores. A modelagem matemática para o escoamento em golfadas compreende desde modelos simples em regime estacionário até modelos mais complexos, em regime transiente. E, para solução destes modelos são necessárias correlações empíricas e distribuições estatísticas dos parâmetros característicos do escoamento. Assim, no presente trabalho, vários modelos baseados em redes neurais artificiais são apresentados como suporte à caracterização dos parâmetros do escoamento bifásico em golfadas em função das séries temporais de fração de vazio obtidas experimentalmente. As séries temporais de fração de vazio são medidas com um par de sensores de malha de eletrodos instalado na seção de testes de uma planta experimental do NUEMUTFPR e descritas em Castillo (2015). A partir das séries temporais de fração de vazio medidas são calculados os parâmetros de interesse para o escoamento em estudo: comprimento da bolha alongada de gás, comprimento do pistão de líquido, velocidade de translação da bolha alongada e desvios padrões para essas variáveis. Essas variáveis medidas e calculadas são utilizadas para a obtenção de um conjunto de modelos baseados em rede neural artificial. Após obtenção dos modelos é realizado um estudo de simulação no qual esses modelos são usados para estimar os parâmetros que caracterizam o escoamento bifásico em golfadas. Análises detalhadas dos resultados mostraram que as variáveis relacionadas à fase gasosa são estimadas com maior acurácia que as variáveis relacionadas à fase líquida. Como aplicação imediata do modelo obtido, apresenta-se sua utilização como uma ferramenta de cálculo das condições iniciais para um modelo matemático fenomenológico de escoamento bifásico em golfadas com leve mudança de inclinação baseado no método de seguimento de pistões. O diferencial do presente trabalho está na predição da característica intermitente do escoamento bifásico líquido-gás em golfadas a partir do modelo neural, além da estimação de parâmetros médios para as variáveis de interesse com taxas de incerteza variando entre 10% e 16%. / Gas-liquid two-phase flows are present in nature and in different industrial activities. In this type of flow, the liquid and gas phases assume different spatial configurations inside the pipe, called flow patterns. Slug flow is one of the most frequent flow patterns in industrial applications, occurring over a wide range of phase velocities according to studies presented by several authors. The mathematical modelling of slug flow comprises from simple steady state models to more complex models for transient regimes. Those models require closure relationships, e.g. empirical correlations and statistical distributions of characteristic flow parameters. In this work, several models based on artificial neural networks are presented as a support to the characterization of the two-phase slug flow parameters that depend on experimentally obtained void fraction time series. The void fraction time series are measured with a pair of wiremesh sensors installed in a test section of an experimental rig in the premises of the NUEM/UTFPR labs and described in Castillo (2015). From the time series of void fraction measurements relevant parameters to the flow under consideration are computed: the length of the elongated gas bubble, the liquid slug length, the translational velocity of the elongated bubble and the standard deviations for those variables. Those measured and calculated variables are used to obtain a set of artificial neural network-based models. After obtaining such models, a simulation study in which those models are used to estimate the parameters that characterize the two-phase slug flows is carried out. Detailed analysis of the results showed that the variables related to the gas phase are estimated with greater accuracy than the ones related to the liquid phase. As an immediate application of the obtained model, its use as a tool to calculate the initial conditions for a phenomenological mathematical model of twophase slug flow with a slight change of inclination based on a slug tracking method is presented. The differential of this study is to predict the intermittent features of the twophase slug flow by means of a neural model, as well as the estimation of average parameters for the variables of interest with uncertainly rates ranging between 10% and 16%.

Escoamentos bifásicos líquido-gás estão presentes na natureza e em muitas atividades industriais. Neste tipo de escoamento, as fases líquida e gasosa podem assumir diferentes configurações espaciais dentro da tubulação, chamadas padrões de escoamento. O escoamento bifásico líquido-gás em golfadas é o padrão de escoamento mais frequente nas aplicações industriais, ocorrendo em uma ampla faixa de velocidades das fases segundo os estudos de diversos autores. A modelagem matemática para o escoamento em golfadas compreende desde modelos simples em regime estacionário até modelos mais complexos, em regime transiente. E, para solução destes modelos são necessárias correlações empíricas e distribuições estatísticas dos parâmetros característicos do escoamento. Assim, no presente trabalho, vários modelos baseados em redes neurais artificiais são apresentados como suporte à caracterização dos parâmetros do escoamento bifásico em golfadas em função das séries temporais de fração de vazio obtidas experimentalmente. As séries temporais de fração de vazio são medidas com um par de sensores de malha de eletrodos instalado na seção de testes de uma planta experimental do NUEMUTFPR e descritas em Castillo (2015). A partir das séries temporais de fração de vazio medidas são calculados os parâmetros de interesse para o escoamento em estudo: comprimento da bolha alongada de gás, comprimento do pistão de líquido, velocidade de translação da bolha alongada e desvios padrões para essas variáveis. Essas variáveis medidas e calculadas são utilizadas para a obtenção de um conjunto de modelos baseados em rede neural artificial. Após obtenção dos modelos é realizado um estudo de simulação no qual esses modelos são usados para estimar os parâmetros que caracterizam o escoamento bifásico em golfadas. Análises detalhadas dos resultados mostraram que as variáveis relacionadas à fase gasosa são estimadas com maior acurácia que as variáveis relacionadas à fase líquida. Como aplicação imediata do modelo obtido, apresenta-se sua utilização como uma ferramenta de cálculo das condições iniciais para um modelo matemático fenomenológico de escoamento bifásico em golfadas com leve mudança de inclinação baseado no método de seguimento de pistões. O diferencial do presente trabalho está na predição da característica intermitente do escoamento bifásico líquido-gás em golfadas a partir do modelo neural, além da estimação de parâmetros médios para as variáveis de interesse com taxas de incerteza variando entre 10% e 16%. / Gas-liquid two-phase flows are present in nature and in different industrial activities. In this type of flow, the liquid and gas phases assume different spatial configurations inside the pipe, called flow patterns. Slug flow is one of the most frequent flow patterns in industrial applications, occurring over a wide range of phase velocities according to studies presented by several authors. The mathematical modelling of slug flow comprises from simple steady state models to more complex models for transient regimes. Those models require closure relationships, e.g. empirical correlations and statistical distributions of characteristic flow parameters. In this work, several models based on artificial neural networks are presented as a support to the characterization of the two-phase slug flow parameters that depend on experimentally obtained void fraction time series. The void fraction time series are measured with a pair of wiremesh sensors installed in a test section of an experimental rig in the premises of the NUEM/UTFPR labs and described in Castillo (2015). From the time series of void fraction measurements relevant parameters to the flow under consideration are computed: the length of the elongated gas bubble, the liquid slug length, the translational velocity of the elongated bubble and the standard deviations for those variables. Those measured and calculated variables are used to obtain a set of artificial neural network-based models. After obtaining such models, a simulation study in which those models are used to estimate the parameters that characterize the two-phase slug flows is carried out. Detailed analysis of the results showed that the variables related to the gas phase are estimated with greater accuracy than the ones related to the liquid phase. As an immediate application of the obtained model, its use as a tool to calculate the initial conditions for a phenomenological mathematical model of twophase slug flow with a slight change of inclination based on a slug tracking method is presented. The differential of this study is to predict the intermittent features of the twophase slug flow by means of a neural model, as well as the estimation of average parameters for the variables of interest with uncertainly rates ranging between 10% and 16%.

Les échangeurs de chaleur constitués de microcanaux parallèles sont considérés une bonne solution technologique pour dissiper de grands flux de chaleur dans les composants et les systèmes miniaturisés. D’une manière générale cette réduction de taille permet une diminution des coûts des matériaux et l'utilisation de plus faible quantité de fluides frigorigènes pour les systèmes de refroidissement. Cette étude est divisée en deux parties complémentaires A et B. Elles visent à étudier le comportement thermo-hydraulique dans les échangeurs de chaleur constitués de microcanaux pour une meilleure compréhension des transferts de chaleur et des écoulements diphasiques dans les évaporateurs miniatures. Dans la partie A, nous étudions l'ébullition convective du réfrigérant R134a dans un mini échangeur composé de neuf microcanaux parallèles de section transversale circulaire, placés horizontalement, avec un diamètre interne de 0,77 mm et longueur et 150 mm. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent que la configuration d'écoulement a une forte influence sur le coefficient de transfert de chaleur, et que différents mécanismes de transfert de chaleur ont lieu dans chacune de ces configurations d'écoulement. En revanche la perte de pression est une fonction directe de la vitesse massique, du titre de vapeur et de la pression du système. La partie B, porte sur l’analyse de la distribution de l'écoulement diphasique en l’absence de transferts de chaleur et de changement de phase liquide-vapeur. A partir de ces résultats nous montrons que les effets du titre de gaz sur la répartition du liquide change considérablement selon la position de l'ensemble (tube d'alimentation, distributeur-canaux). / Heat exchangers consisting of parallel micro-channels are considered a good technological solution in response to the increasing demand for compact systems, which require high heat flux dissipation, ensuring a decrease in the material costs and the use of a lower quantity of refrigerants. The aim of this study was to investigate the thermo-hydraulic behavior inside these components provided by microchannels. This study is divided into two experimental studies (A and B) which are complementary. In part A, the convective boiling of the refrigerant R134a is analyzed within nine parallel microchannels of circular cross section, positioned horizontally, with internal diameter and length of 0.77 mm and 150 mm, respectively. The experimental results show that the flow pattern has a strong influence on the heat transfer coefficient, and that different heat transfer mechanisms are associated with each of the flow patterns observed, whereas the frictional pressure drop is a direct function of the mass velocity, vapor quality and pressure of the system. In part B, the two-phase flow distribution, using as the working fluid a mixture of air and water, is analyzed inside a circular header coupled to nine branched parallel microchannels of circular cross-section with internal diameter and length of 0.8 mm and 150 mm, respectively. The results show that the effect of the gas quality on the liquid distribution changes considerably depending on the configuration (feeder tube-header-channels).

Passive two-phase cooling devices such as capillary pump loops, loop heat pipes, and vapor chambers can utilize capillary-fed boiling in the porous evaporator wick to achieve high heat flux dissipation, while maintaining low thermal resistances. These systems typically rely only on passive capillary pumping through the porous wick to transport fluid. This inevitably leads to limits on the maximum heat flux and power dissipation based on the maximum capillary pressure available. To overcome these capillary pumping limitations in these passive devices, a mechanical pump can be added to the system to create a pump-assisted capillary loop (PACL). The pump can actively transport the fluid to overcome the pressure drop in liquid lines, reserving all of the available capillary action to draw liquid from a compensation chamber into the porous evaporator at the location of the heat input.<br>Previous studies on pump-assisted capillary loops have used a porous pathway to draw liquid to the heated evaporator surface from a liquid supply in the compensation chamber. This pathway typically comprises porous posts distributed over the heated surface area to ensure uniform liquid feeding during boiling and to avoid dryout regions. This thesis presents an evaporator design for a pump-assisted capillary loop system featuring a non-porous manifold connection between the compensation chamber and the evaporator wick base where boiling occurs. By using this approach, microscale liquid-feeding features can be implemented without the manufacturing restrictions associated with the use of porous wick pathways (such as sintered powder copper particles).<br>An analytical model for two-phase pressure drop prediction in the base wick is developed and used to define the evaporator geometry and feeding structure dimensions. A parametric analysis of the evaporator geometry is performed with the target of achieving a maximum heat dissipation of 1 kW/cm2 without a capillary limit. A 24 x 24 microtube array configuration with an outside tube diameter of 0.25 mm was identified as a result of this analysis. This manifold delivers liquid the base wick manufactured from sintered copper particles with a mean particle diameter of 90 microns. <br>The resulting evaporator geometry was translated into a manufacturable copper manifold design. A modular test section design consisting of a cover for attachment of fittings, a support structure for holding the manifold, a sintered copper wick base, and a carrier plate was created and manufactured, to accommodate for future testing scheduled to be performed by an external industry partner. The resulting design provides a testing vehicle to investigate the effect of different tubing arrangements and dimensions, as well as multiple base wick configurations. This knowledge can be used to engineer future evaporator architectures for enhanced performance. The improved understanding providing on the effect of liquid feeding distribution into the base wick, the effects of boiling on the base wick pressure drop, and the manufacturing limitations can each improve the performance prediction of evaporators with top feeding. <br>

<p>The present study investigates the capability of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) extensively to predict hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics of FC-72 flow boiling in a 2.5-mm ´ 5.0-mm rectangular channel and experimentally explores system instabilities: <em>density wave oscillation</em> (DWO), <em>pressure drop oscillation</em> (PDO) and <em>parallel channel instability</em> (PCI) in a micro-channel heat sink containing 38 parallel channels having a hydraulic diameter of 316-μm. </p> <p>The computational method performs transient analysis to model the entire flow field and bubble behavior for subcooled flow boiling in a rectangular channel heated on two opposite walls at high heat flux conditions of about 40% – 80% of <em>critical heat flux</em> (CHF).  The 3D CFD solver is constructed in ANSYS Fluent in which the <em>volume of fluid</em> (VOF) model is combined with a <em>shear stress transport</em> (SST) <em>k</em>-<em>ω</em> turbulent model, a surface tension model, and interfacial phase change model, along with a model for effects of shear-lift and bubble collision dispersion to overcome a fundamental weakness in modeling multiphase flows.  Detailed information about bubble distribution in the vicinity of the heated surface, thermal conduction inside the heating wall, local heat fluxes passing through the solid-fluid interface, and velocity and temperature profiles, which are not easily observed or measured by experiments, is carefully evaluated.  The simulation results are compared to experimental data to validate the solver’s ability to predict the flow configuration with single/double-side heating.  The added momentum by shear-lift is shown to govern primarily the dynamic behavior of tiny bubbles stuck on the heated bottom wall and therefore has a more significant impact on both heat transfer and heated wall temperature.  By including bubble collision dispersion force, coalescence of densely packed bubbles in the bulk region is significantly inhibited, with more giant bubbles even incurring additional breakup into smaller bubbles and culminating in far less vapor accumulation along the top wall.  Including these momentums is shown to yield better agreement with local interfacial behavior along the channel, overall flow pattern, and heat transfer parameters (wall temperature and heat transfer coefficient) observed and measured in experiments.  The computational approach is also shown to be highly effective at predicting local phenomena (velocity and temperature profiles) not easily determined through experiments.  Different flow regimes predicted along the heated length exhibit a number of dominant mechanisms, including bubble nucleation, bubble growth, coalescence, vapor blankets, interfacial waviness, and residual liquid sub-layer, all of which agree well with the experiment.  Vapor velocity is shown to increase appreciably along the heated length because of increased void fraction, while liquid velocity experiences large fluctuations.  Non-equilibrium effects are accentuated with increasing mass velocity, contributing minor deviations of fluid temperature from simulations compared to those predicted by the analytical method.  Predicted wall temperature is reasonably uniform in the middle of the heated length but increases in the entrance region due to sensible heat transfer in the subcooled liquid and decreases toward the exit, primarily because of flow acceleration resulting from increased void fraction.  When it comes to analyzing heat transfer mechanisms at extremely high heat flux via CFD, predicted flow pattern, bubble behavior, and heat transfer parameters (such as wall temperature excursion and thermal energy concentration) clearly represent phenomena of premature CHF, which take place slightly earlier than actual operating conditions.  But, despite these slight differences, the present computational work does demonstrate the ability to effectively predict the severe degradation in heat transfer performance commonly encountered at heat fluxes nearing CHF.  </p> <p>Much of the published literature addressing flow instabilities in thermal management systems employing micro-channel modules are focused on instability characteristics of the module alone, and far fewer studies have aimed at understanding the relationship between these characteristics and compressive volume in the flow loop external to the module.  From a practical point of view, developers of micro-channel thermal management systems for many modern applications are in pursuit of practical remedies that would significantly mitigate instabilities and their impact on cooling performance.  Experiments are executed using FC-72 as a working fluid with a wide range of mass velocities and a reasonably constant inlet subcooling of ~15°C.  The flow instabilities are reflected in pressure fluctuations detected mainly in the heat sink’s upstream plenum.  Both inlet pressure and pressure drop signals are analyzed in pursuit of amplitude and frequency characteristics for different mass velocities and over a range of heat fluxes.  The current experimental study also examines the effects of compressible volume location in a closed pump-driven flow loop designed to deliver FC-72 to a micro-channel test module having 38 channels with 315-μm hydraulic diameter.  Three accumulator locations are investigated: upstream of the test module, downstream of the test module, and between the condenser and pump.  Both high-frequency temporal parameter data and high-speed video records are analyzed for ranges of mass velocity and heat flux, with inlet subcooling held constant at ~15°C.  PDO is shown to dominate when the accumulator is situated upstream, whereas PCI is dominant for the other two locations.  Appreciable confinement of bubbles in individual channels is shown to promote rapid axial bubble growth.  The study shows significant variations in the amount of vapor generated and dominant flow patterns among channels, a clear manifestation of PCI, especially for low mass velocities and high heat fluxes.  It is also shown effects of the heat sink’s instabilities are felt in other components of the flow loop.  The parametric trends for PCI are investigated with the aid of three different types of stability maps which show different abilities at demarcating stable and unstable operations.  PDO shows severe pressure oscillations across the micro-channel heat sink, with rapid bubble growth and confinement, elongated bubble expansion in both directions, flow stagnation, and flow reversal (including vapor backflow to the inlet plenum) constituting the principal sequence of events characterizing the instability.  Spectral analysis of pressure signals is performed using Fast Fourier Transform, which shows PDO extending the inlet pressure fluctuations with the same dominant frequency to other upstream flow loop components, with higher amplitudes closer to the pump exit.  From a practical system operation point of view, throttling the flow upstream of the heat sink eliminates PDO but renders PCI dominant, and placing the accumulator in the liquid flow segment of the loop between the condenser and pump ensures the most stable operation.</p>