The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of possible factors that lead to academic success for African American children who participated in two-way immersion programs. In order to examine the perceptions, the following areas were explored: 1.) The evolution of the academic achievement gap that exists between African American and Anglo children and the reasons theorists gave as to why the gap exists, as well as the importance of this connection to two-way immersion program participation 2.) The evolution of the modern two-way immersion language program via its development through bilingual education, and 3.) The development of Canadian twoway immersion language programs, and how political, economic, and cultural factors have impacted their successful implementation. The research method consisted of purposeful sampling of six African-American children in fourth and fifth grade who are participants in an elementary two-way immersion language program and their primary caregivers. The interviews were audio taped with notes taken for clarity. The data revealed that the primary caregivers perceived the participation of their children in a two-way language immersion program to be an educational move which would enhance the lives of their children economically, educationally and socially. The primary caregivers maintained involvement in the education of their children through facilitating homework completion in Spanish, communicating with teachers on a regular basis, participating in PTO, and facilitating structured and unstructured extra curricular activities with family and friends. The children perceived positive teacher interaction to play an important role in their academic success. They had positive experiences speaking Spanish with friends, family, and persons that they did not know. The primary caregivers perceived that the school and the district did not provide enough additional support to facilitate Spanish language acquisition for their children. This would indicate that more support from the school and the district is needed for future groups of African-American children in two-way immersion language programs.

This thesis is situated in the field of applied linguistics, education and European Studies. The empirical part examines outcomes in a two-way immersion (TWI) education model in Berlin (SESB) that go beyond linguistic or academic achievements. Based on a peace-linguistic framework established for the purpose of this study, this thesis assesses to what extent SESB programmes are associated with dimensions related to peace education, social capital and critical applied linguistics. Additionally, a teacher survey looks at attitudes towards bilingual and monolingual education and social integration. The findings are discussed in the framework of previous studies, chiefly from the USA, and in terms of language policy development in Germany and in Europe. This leads to a number of recommendations for stakeholders and policymakers. Employing a quasi-experimental design, involving a TWI and a control group, data were collected through a questionnaire survey of 14-18 year-old students (N=603) and teachers (N=32) in Berlin, which were analysed using primarily quantitative methods (including multiple regression) but with some qualitative elements. Based on statistically significant effects with at least small effect sizes, it was established that students in SESB had a greater sense of inclusion among classmates and greater conflict resolution skills than the control group. When looking at effects in subgroups (students with German, bilingual or non-German language backgrounds) there were also positive effects, however, the groups were affected in different ways, as is set out in this thesis. Furthermore, SESB also had a positive effect on relationships between parents and teachers, as well as on the students’ language attitudes and use patterns. In conclusion, it is argued that, besides personal and societal multilingualism, TWI programmes in Berlin are associated with greater potential for cohesion in the school class, and may benefit wider social integration of different language communities. Additionally, this thesis introduces German TWI programmes to an English-language audience.

Le projet Filière Bilingue (FiBi), qui a débuté à Bienne (Suisse) en août 2010, est un programme réciproque-immersif destiné aux élèves à partir de lʼécole enfantine. Cet enseignement leur permet de se plonger dans un monde bilingue (suisse-allemand et français), puis plurilingue (allemand, suisse-allemand et français). Ayant donc à se mouvoir dans des situations exolingues, les enfants doivent sʼappuyer sur des stratégies communicatives pour pouvoir interagir avec leurs interlocuteurs tout au long de la journée. Dans le cadre dʼun enseignement réciproque-immersif, ces stratégies communicatives vont constituer un élément fixe lors des interactions entre enfants et enseignants d’une part, et entre les enfants eux-mêmes d’autre part. Notre travail de recherche a pour objectif de mettre en évidence le développement de ces outils communicatifs de huit sujets de sexe féminin pendant les quatre ans entre l'école enfantine et la 2ème année d'école primaire. Les interviews guidées, qui constituent notre corpus, ont toutes été filmées, puis transcrites avec EXMARaLDA. Les stratégies communicatives observées dans les interviews guidées ont ensuite été codées au moyen du logiciel MAXQDA. Elles peuvent être classifiées en dix catégories principales : les stratégies d'évitement, d'alternance linguistique, d'imitation, d'exploration, de coopération, d'appel, de compensation, de transfert, ainsi que non verbales et paraverbales et paraphrastiques. Nous avons pu mettre en évidence des changements dans l’utilisation des stratégies communicatives au fil du processus d'apprentissage de la langue cible dans la complexité, la variété, la combinaison (utilisation simultanée) de plusieurs stratégies communicatives, l'utilisation consciente, ainsi que dans la fonction. / The project Filière bilingue (FiBi), which has been running since 2010, is a two-way immersion program by way of Swiss German, German and French starting at kindergarten in the city of Biel/Bienne, Switzerland. In these bilingual classes are both German and French speaking pupils confronted with both languages from the beginning of their schooling. Therefore, communication strategies are developed, not only between pupils, but also between the pupils and the teacher. The following research study focuses on various communication strategies utilised by eight female pupils over a period of four years, namely from kindergarten to the end of Year 2 of primary school. Through the FiBi project, five semi-structured interviews were taken and then transcribed with the software EXMARaLDA. Subsequently, these transcriptions were coded according to the communication strategy used via the software MAXQDA. From the analysed data, ten types of observed communication strategies were categorised: avoidance/omission, code switching, imitation, guessing, appeal for assistance, retrieval, nonverbal and para-verbal communication, paraphrasing, approximation, and transferring. The research has shown that as the pupils’ competence in the target language increases, so does the complexity, frequency, function, intertwining, and the consciousness use of the communication strategies.

Thesis advisor: Larry Ludlow / In this dissertation study, I examined the extent to which a relational network of teachers, administrators, two-way immersion (TWI) experts and mentors promote productive communities of practice (CoP). In a conventional instruction, teachers are often isolated in their classrooms, and a private practice culture prevails. In 2012, the Two-Way Immersion Network for Catholic Schools (TWIN-CS) was launched in an effort to support school reform by engaging school leaders and teachers to collectively learn toward implementing TWI models in their schools. Using the framework of communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1999), I employed a case study design (Yin, 2009) to explore a national network of Catholic elementary school educators. Data sources included qualitative data featuring semi-structured interviews and quantitative source from a relational network survey. Qualitative results revealed that organizational features of TWIN-CS are critical in promoting participants’ learning to implement TWI. In particular, participants discussed the annual TWIN Summer Academy and bi-monthly webinars to be instrumental for their learning. Many participants also shared that an expansion of CoPs beyond TWIN-CS further prompted productive learning. However, the qualitative evidence also showed a lack of clear internal and external network structures and role definition, and sustaining connection beyond the Summer Academy and webinars were perceived as a great challenge. Quantitative results suggest that TWIN-CS has a core-and-periphery network structure with the Boston College design team at the innermost core, with visibly dense ties connecting to and from them. Most teachers, on the other hand, occupy the most peripheral positions in this network. Survey evidence also showed that participants generally perceived a much stronger learning relationship within schools and showed less certainty on cross-network relationships. In terms of learning characteristics, majority of the respondents viewed knowledge sharing, trust, and advice-oriented dimensions “strongly” but perceived a lack of data-driven learning for both within school and cross-network. I conclude this study with a discussion of implications for future research and practice. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Research, Measurement and Evaluation.

Thesis advisor: Lauri Johnson / While the academic and social success of two-way immersion programs in the public school sector is widely documented, little research has been conducted on how US Catholic school leaders have managed this whole school reform. Through an exploratory case study, the motivations and perceptions of 28 Catholic school administrators and change agents/key informants (including teachers, assistant/vice principals, board members, and consultants) from ten Catholic elementary schools were interviewed regarding the conversion to a dual language immersion model. Findings considered how Hargreaves and Fullan’s (2012) concept of professional capital and Grace’s (2002; 2010) notion of spiritual capital contributed to the leaders’ capacity to meet the school’s change needs. Most schools began with limited resources and knowledge about the technical aspects of dual language immersion, but made use of key local and national social networks as well as drew upon their own biographies and Catholic vision to increase enrollment and engender professional learning among faculty. Implications for future research and practice include attention to the nuances of academic excellence and the complex language history of Catholic schools. The study concludes with recommendations for Catholic school principals. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teacher Education, Special Education, Curriculum and Instruction.

xviii, 278 p. : ill. (some col.) / Two-way immersion (TWI) programs teach English Learners (ELs) and native English speakers in the same classroom using both languages in an immersion approach. Studies suggest that TWI programs result in greater student integration, thus providing a promising alternative for Spanish speaking ELs, who are frequently concentrated in high poverty, majority-minority schools. This study used a mixed methods research design to examine student integration issues in two elementary schools. Enrollment data from 1999-2009 were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Grounded theory was used to analyze data from interviews, focus groups, observations, and archival documents. The demographic analyses revealed trends that are consistent with demographic changes nationally: an increasing Latino population and a decreasing White population. In terms of instructional integration patterns, the following findings were consistent for both schools. Prior to the introduction of TWI, students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) were evenly distributed among 4th/5th grade classrooms. After TWI, significantly more students with IEPs were in the English only than in TWI classes. In addition, after TWI, significantly more English speakers who qualified for free/reduced meals were found in the English only classes. However, Spanish speakers, who were almost exclusively located in TWI, had significantly higher free/reduced meals rates than English speakers in either TWI or English only classes. The central theme to emerge in the grounded theory study was "Negotiating the Value of Spanish," a process that occurred over many years as both schools grappled with a growing Latino population. Using Bourdieu's concept of cultural capital, I suggest that the introduction of TWI commodified Spanish within the mainstream educational program, providing cultural capital gains for Spanish speakers as a result. TWI provided the justification and resources for hiring more bilingual staff, for purchasing Spanish curriculum materials, for providing professional development in Spanish and about Spanish literacy, for increasing outreach to Spanish speaking families, and for prioritizing Spanish speakers' access to the program. Spanish speakers and their families thus gained greater access to the curriculum and the life of the school, and staff began to see Spanish speakers differently. / Committee in charge: Joseph Stevens, Chairperson; Gerald Rosiek, Member; Edward Olivos, Member; Leanne Ketterlin, Geller Member; Lynn Stephen, Outside Member

Dual-immersion is a bilingual education method offered that places English as a first language (EFL) and English language learner (ELL) students in the same classroom to learn two languages at the same time. This study examines whether second language acquisition through dual-immersion supports literacy for both ELL and EFLS children over time. Students' scores on standardized tests (ITBS, TAKS, Logramos, Stanford 9, and Aprenda) were studied to assess the impact, if any, of dual-immersion instruction vs. regular/bilingual education on reading development. Scores from 2000 through 2004 were gathered and analyzed for students enrolled in a dual-immersion class which started in kindergarten in 2000. These scores were compared to scores of students enrolled in regular and bilingual education classrooms for the same amount of time at the same school to examine whether there was an effect for students in the dual-immersion class. It was found that no significant difference existed between the groups. All groups were performing at a passing level on the standardized tests. The dual-immersion class was performing as well as the regular education class on standardized tests in both English and Spanish.

This normative comparative study sought to compare the reading achievement, in English and Spanish, of Latino English learners in a 50/50 two-way immersion (TWI) bilingual program to Latino English learners in a 90/10 TWI program. The scores from 55 students across four TWI programs, two 50/50 and two 90/10, were analyzed. The principal from each school was also interviewed. Quantitative data from the district’s reading Benchmark Book Test, California Standards Test/English Language Arts and Standards-based Test in Spanish were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA, Bonferroni Post Hoc and Chi Square to compare the means between the students’ reading achievement in Spanish and English by program model. Overall the biliteracy results revealed that the main effect between programs was not significant (p = .23) nor was the within subjects effect (p = .42). However, the interaction of grade and program was significant (p = .001). English and Spanish literacy results showed the students in the 50/50 TWI program outperformed students in the 90/10 TWI program by end of fifth grade; however across program models more students reached grade level literacy in English than in Spanish. Interviews with the principals of each school revealed that when analyzing test data at the school site level, English data were analyzed more closely and more systematically due to accountability measures indicating that NCLB has had a profound effect on the biliteracy attainment of Latino English learners in two-way immersion.

Research on adolescents sense of belonging in schools is plentiful; however, there is an obvious lack of research conducted in early childhood years. Friendship groups have been shown to be impactful in helping students feel like they belong in school. This study explores how kindergarteners talk about friendship in the context of belonging in a two-way immersion school. I pay particular attention to the role primary language plays in developing a sense of belonging and friendships at school. The 19 kindergarteners in this study were interviewed in small linguistically homogenous groups of 2 or 3 students. Each focus group was shown 2 puppets that represented one English-speaking and one Spanish-speaking child. Students were then asked to help each puppet understand what it would be like to be a new student at the school and what they would need to know to fit in. Findings reveal that these students recognize the utility of language for doing schoolwork and fitting into the institution of schooling, but did not highlight the importance of language as a necessary tool for making friends. Students focus on the importance of understanding the social context in order to belong at school. More research is needed regarding how school programs and social context influence the development of friendship.

Research on adolescents sense of belonging in schools is plentiful; however, there is an obvious lack of research conducted in early childhood years. Friendship groups have been shown to be impactful in helping students feel like they belong in school. This study explores how kindergarteners talk about friendship in the context of belonging in a two-way immersion school. I pay particular attention to the role primary language plays in developing a sense of belonging and friendships at school. The 19 kindergarteners in this study were interviewed in small linguistically homogenous groups of 2 or 3 students. Each focus group was shown 2 puppets that represented one English-speaking and one Spanish-speaking child. Students were then asked to help each puppet understand what it would be like to be a new student at the school and what they would need to know to fit in. Findings reveal that these students recognize the utility of language for doing schoolwork and fitting into the institution of schooling, but did not highlight the importance of language as a necessary tool for making friends. Students focus on the importance of understanding the social context in order to belong at school. More research is needed regarding how school programs and social context influence the development of friendship.