Through endocrine and exocrine functioning, physiological needs are communicated to body systems. Physiological need is met through the actions of intracellular signaling cascades and calibrated through an extensive network of regulatory cross talk within the cells of a given tissue. The insulin receptor belongs to a family of perhaps one of the most well studied family of dual receptor and tyrosine kinases (RTK). The signaling cascade downstream of the insulin RTK can be initiated through Insulin or growth factor ligand binding and bears growing relevance to the projected epidemic of obesity related illness and associated cancers. The primary function of the post-prandial insulin response is to support nutrient uptake and storage. Insulin (IS), Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF), and Epidermal Growth Factors (EGF) contribute to glucose metabolism, energetic homeostasis, and anabolic applications through effector kinases downstream of activated (phosphorylated) insulin receptor substrates (IRS). Protein Kinase B (AKT) kinase is one such cytosolic effector known to be of critical importance to anabolic metabolism and general cell survival. Under normal circumstances, AKT activity is dependent upon dual phosphorylation events known to occur at the plasma membrane. In an attempt to better understand the mechanism of AKT recruitment to the plasma membrane, earlier experiments reported that IRS stimulation by Insulin-Like Growth Factors (IGF) and Epidermal Growth Factors (EGF) resulted in downstream poly-ubiquitination and subsequent activation of the AKT kinase. This sequence of post-translational modification events suggested that non-proteolytic AKT ubiquitination, accomplished by the E2 Ubiquitin Conjugating enzyme (UBC13), was an important mediator of AKT activation. Through subsequent experimentation, it was determined that non-proteolytic ubiquitination was a necessary step for AKT activation following IRS activation by Insulin. Furthermore, the same two sites previously described in the context of IGF/EGF signaling were exploited through targeted mutagenesis and shown to synergistically regulate AKT translocation to the plasma membrane. Mutant AKT variants with a single mutation to either ubiquitination site resulted in partial knock down of phosphorylated AKT (pAKT), while variants with double mutations resulted in a complete loss of pAKT detection. Under physiologic conditions UBC13 activity can be antagonized by a small multifunctional protein called G-Protein Pathway Suppressor 2 (GPS2). Bearing the kinetics of an endogenous inhibitor, GPS2-mediated regulation directly inhibits the ubiquitin conjugating activity of the enzyme; thereby restricting AKT non-proteolytic poly-ubiquitination and antagonizing the insulin signaling network through a conserved mechanism. In accordance with this role, we have previously shown that GPS2 presence in adipocytes modulates systemic metabolism by restricting the activation of insulin signaling during the fasted state, whereas in absence of GPS2, the adipose tissue is more efficient at lipid storage, and obesity becomes uncoupled from inflammation and insulin resistance. As we are just beginning to unravel the regulatory network governing the cellular response to nutrient excess and pro-growth signaling, it remains unclear whether UBC13 activity is universally engaged in AKT translocation and activation. Here we have focused on the mitochondrial pool of AKT and investigated its regulation. Our findings add to the growing body of knowledge by demonstrating that in pre-adipocytes mitochondrial AKT is activated, in a UBC13-dependent fashion, following insulin stimulation. We also show that GPS2-mediated inhibition of UBC13 equally antagonizes AKT activation in different subcellular compartments, and that mitochondrial AKT activation is partially Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K) dependent.

In eukaryotic organisms, polyubiquitination is the modification of a protein with polymerized ubiquitin (Ub) chain. This process is well known for its function in targeting proteins for degradation by the 26S proteasome. However, a polyUb chain assembled through the lysine 63 residue of the Ub moiety (Lys63-linked polyubiquitination) has been shown to play a signaling role rather than targeting proteins for degradation. In plants, the functions of Lys63-linked polyubiquitination are currently not well understood. Ub-protein ligase (E3) catalyzes the last step in the ubiquitination reactions, and to a large extent it also determines the substrate specificity of protein ubiquitination. In order to study the roles of Lys63-linked polyubiquitination in plants, two E3s of Arabidopsis thaliana, proteins encoded by AtCHIP and At1g74370 (tentatively named E3-A1), were chosen for functional studies, since they interacted with AtUbc13A protein. Sequence analysis showed that AtCHIP is the only member in the family. A T-DNA insertion mutant line (Atchip-1) was obtained to study the AtCHIP gene knock-out effect. The mutant line was grown in normal conditions and further tested in a variety of conditions: hormonal treatments, osmotic stress, seed deterioration, high temperature stress, high-intensity light stress, oxidative stress and DNA damaging stress. However, no clear difference was observed between the mutant and wild type plants based on the several parameters measured. Sequence analysis of E3-A1 indicated two closely related proteins, tentatively named E3-A2 and E3-A3. As E3-A1 and E3-A2 appeared to share more sequence similarity, RNA interference (RNAi) transformants, with the level of transcripts for either of the two E3-A genes reduced by over 90% were generated. Selected RNAi mutant lines for E3-A1 and E3-A2 were crossed with each other, and double RNAi mutants were obtained. However, no distinct phenotype was detected under normal, high-sucrose or hormonal conditions for either single or double RNAi lines. Although various assays did not reveal a significant phenotype in the mutants in this study, the materials generated and the assays used will benefit a wider range of phenotypic survey in the future.

The Chfr checkpoint is a point at which a cell checks whether it is safe to enter mitosis. Chfr is a protein that functions at this particular checkpoint to ensure safe entry into mitosis, but the molecular mechanism by which this protein functions is not entirely clear. The hypothesis in this thesis is that Ubc13, Chfr, and Uev1/Mms2 function together in mitosis. The results were observed using immunocytochemistry, the mitotic shake off procedure, Western blot analysis, and coimmunoprecipitation. High Ubc13, Mms2, and Chfr-Ub levels at the interphase-early prophase transition, indicate that these proteins function together at the Chfr checkpoint. Localization of Chfr to decondensed chromatin in interphase cells and to decondensing chromatin in telophase cells indicates a decondensing function for Chfr. Interaction between Chfr and Ubc13, Chfr and phosphorylated histone H3, as well as Ubc13 and phosphorylated histone H3, further indicates that these proteins may function together at the Chfr checkpoint, because phosphorylated histone H3 is a mitotic protein at that particular point in mitosis. Localization of Chfr, Ubc13, and Mms2 to the centrosomes, indicates that they function together at these sites to target substrates important in centrosome maturation, separation, and spindle formation. Furthermore, there are two molecular states of Chfr: Chfr and Chfr-Ub. Chfr is predominant at late prophase, whereas, Chfr-Ub is predominant at interphase-early prophase. Chfr increases in level upon nocodazole exposure at late prophase to counteract the mitotic stress; and it also looses its ubiquitin signal upon passage into mitosis. High Ubc13 and Mms2 levels coincide with high Chfr-Ub levels at the interphase-early prophase transition, indicating that they function together at the Chfr checkpoint. The ubiquitin signal could be either K-48-linked or K-63-linked in nature. The Chfr, Ubc13, and Mms2 protein complex could function through a self ubiquitination-decondensation-Chfr destruction-recondensation mechanism. Chfr could bind to pH3 and its auto-ubiquitin signal to serve as a bulky modification that hinders chromosome condensation.

The GPS2 protein (G-protein pathway suppressor 2) is a product of the mammalian gps2 gene. It was originally identified and characterized in the context of G protein mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. Several studies have linked GPS2 with the inhibition of the ubiquitin conjugating enzyme UBC13. GPS2-mediated inhibition of UBC13 regulates several metabolic and inflammatory pathways. It has been shown that a lack of GPS2 is correlated with an increase in adiposity and inflammation due to the aberrant activity of UBC13 affected pathways. Therefore, understanding the relationship between UBC13 and GPS2 will provide further understanding of the molecular processes involved in adipose tissue levels, inflammation and downstream molecular responses. In this study, we attempt to determine the molecular determinants of GPS2 interaction with UBC13 by optimizing the protein expression protocol required to produce GPS2 protein expression in Escherichia coli in quantities viable for biochemical and structural assays. Our results indicate that optimization of the gps2 sequence is required for efficient GPS2 protein expression in E. coli cells. Thanks to this optimization we have been able to successfully express GPS2 full length and several fragments, however, further optimization will be required for assessing GPS2-UBC13 molecular binding via in vitro binding assays.

L’effet anti-tumoral d'un lipide A, l’OM-174 (partie lipidique des lipopolysaccharides) a été étudié dans un modèle de cancer mammaire chez la souris. In vivo, l’OM-174 augmente la survie de la souris alors qu’in vitro il n'est pas toxique pour les cellules cancéreuses. L’OM-174 se lie au récepteur TLR4 des cellules immunitaires induisant la production de cytokines comme l’IFNγ. In vitro, l’association de cette cytokine au lipide A est cytotoxique. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’en analyser les mécanismes moléculaires. Nous avons montré, aussi bien in vitro qu’in vivo, que la cytotoxicité du lipide A/IFNγ est dépendante du TLR4, du récepteur à l’IFNγ et de l’expression de la NOS II. Nous avons également montré que les espèces radicalaires, NO et anion superoxyde formant le peroxynitrite jouent un rôle crucial dans cette cytotoxicité. L’origine de ces espèces radicalaires se trouve être la NOS II selon un processus de découplage enzymatique. Nous avons également cherché d’autres mécanismes associés pouvant expliquer la cytotoxicité du lipide A/IFNγ. Nous avons ensuite montré que le NO est capable de réagir avec les résidus cystéine de certaines protéines, un processus appelé S-nitrosylation. Une analyse protéomique nous a permis d’identifier au moins une dizaine de protéines qui sont S-nitrosylées dans les cellules cancéreuses mammaires en réponse au lipide A/IFNγ. Nous avons étudié l’impact de cette modification sur la fonction d’une des ces protéines, l’enzyme de conjugaison E2 de l’ubiquitine Ubc13, une protéine impliquée dans la prolifération et la survie cellulaire. Nous avons confirmé la nitrosylation d’Ubc13 et identifié la cystéine 87 comme cible du NO. L’expression d’une forme mutée d’Ubc13 (remplacement de la cystéine 87 par une alanine) inhibe l’auto-ubiquitination de l’enzyme et sa capacité à ubiquitiner une de ses cibles IkBα. Nous avons montré que la S-nitrosylation d’Ubc13 induit sa migration vers le noyau et rend les cellules plus sensibles à l’effet cytotoxique du lipide A/IFNγ. En résumé, nos résultats révèlent un rôle majeur et insoupçonné de la NOS II et du NO dans l’effet antitumoral du lipide A OM-174 dans un modèle de cancer mammaire chez la souris ouvrant la voie pour la conception de nouveaux traitements anticancéreux. / The anti -tumor effect of a lipid A, OM -174 (lipid portion of LPS) was studied in a model of breast cancer in mice. In vivo, OM- 174 increases the survival of mice whereas in vitro it is not toxic to cancer cells. OM -174 binds to TLR4 immune cells inducing the production of cytokines such as IFNγ. In vitro, the combination of IFNγ to lipid A is cytotoxic. The objective of this thesis is to analyze those molecular mechanisms. We have shown both in vitro and in vivo that the cytotoxicity of the lipid A / IFNγ is dependent of TLR4 and of the receptor for IFNγ, and the NOS II expression. We also showed that the radical species, NO and superoxide anion forming peroxynitrite play a crucial role in this cytotoxicity. The origin of these radical species is being NOS II enzyme in a process of decoupling. We also looked for other associated mechanisms that may explain the cytotoxicity of lipid A / IFNγ. We then showed that NO is able to react with the cysteine residues of certain proteins, a process called S- nitrosylation. A proteomic analysis allowed us to identify at least a dozen proteins that are S- nitrosylated in breast cancer cells in response to lipid A / IFNγ. We studied the impact of this change on the basis of one of these proteins, the E2 conjugating enzyme UBC13 ubiquitin, a protein involved in cell proliferation and survival. We confirmed the UBC13 nitrosylation on cysteine 87 and identified as a target of NO. The expression of a mutant of UBC13 (replacement of cysteine 87 with alanine) forms inhibits the auto-ubiquitination of the enzyme and its ability to ubiquitinylated one of its targets IkBα. We have shown that S- nitrosylation of UBC13 induced its translocation to the nucleus and greater sensitivity to the cytotoxic effect of lipid A / IFNγ in cells. In summary, our results reveal an important and unexpected role of NOS II and NO in the antitumor effect of lipid A OM- 174 in a model of breast cancer in mice opening the way for the development of new cancer treatments.

付記する学位プログラム名: 充実した健康長寿社会を築く総合医療開発リーダー育成プログラム / 京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第22730号 / 医博第4648号 / 新制||医||1046(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 遊佐 宏介, 教授 溝脇 尚志, 教授 篠原 隆司 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Ubiquitylation is an indispensable post-translational modification system in eukaryotic cells that leads to the covalent attachment of a small ubiquitin (Ub) protein onto a target. The traditional and best-characterized role for ubiquitylation is a fundamental regulatory mechanism whereby target proteins are tagged with a characteristic Lys48-linked Ub chain that signals for their elimination through proteasomal degradation. Challenging this conventional wisdom is the finding that some ubiquitylated proteins are modified by Ub chains linked through Lys63, providing a molecular signal that is thought to be structurally and functionally distinct from Lys48-linked Ub chains. Of further interest and significance is that the Lys63-linked Ub chains are apparently synthesized through a novel biochemical mechanism employing a unique complex formed between a true Ub conjugating enzyme (E2), Ubc13, and an E2-variant (Uev), Mms2 (or Uev1A). The goal of this thesis was to employ structural and functional approaches in order to better characterize the Ubc13-Mms2 Lys63-linked Ub conjugation complex. <p>Error-free DNA damage tolerance (DDT) in the budding yeast is dependent on Lys63-linked Ub chains synthesized by Ubc13-Mms2 and thus provided the opportunity to experimentally test the function of the human UBC13 and MMS2 genes in a simple model organism. Human UBC13 and MMS2 were each shown to function in place of their yeast counterparts and in accordance, human Ubc13 was shown to physically interact with yeast Mms2, and vice versa. Two human MMS2 homologs were also tested and it was determined that UEV1A but not UEV1B can function in place of mms2 in yeast DDT. Physical interactions were observed between Ubc13 and Uev1A, but not between Ubc13 and Uev1B, suggesting that Ubc13-Uev complex formation is required for function. <p>In collaboration with a research group at the University of Alberta, crystal structure and NMR data were used to develop a mechanistic model for the conjugation of Lys63-linked Ub chains by the Ubc13-Mms2 heterodimer, whereby the special orientation of two Ub molecules facilitates a specific Ub-Ub linkage via Lys63. In order to help support the in vitro model and to determine how the Ubc13-Mms2 structure relates to biological function, I used a structure-based approach to direct the creation of point mutations within four key regions of the Ubc13-Mms2 heterodimer; the Ubc13 active-site, the Ubc13-E3 (Ub ligating enzyme) interface, the Mms2-Ub interface, and the Ubc13-Mms2 interface. <p>Underscoring the importance of the Ub conjugation by Ubc13-Mms2, a Ubc13-C87S active-site mutation was created that could bind to Mms2 but was unable to function in DDT. Regarding the Ubc13-E3 interface, a single Ubc13-M64A point mutation had a potent effect on disrupting Ubc13 function in DDT, as well as its physical interaction with Rad5, TRAF6, and CHFR. The results suggest that different RING finger E3s use the same Ubc13 surface to sequester the Ub conjugation activity of Ubc13-Mms2. Two human Mms2 mutations at Ser32 and Ile62, which are contained within the Mms2-Ub interface, were found to reduce the ability of Mms2 to bind Ub. When the corresponding yeast mutations are combined, a synergistic loss in DDT function is observed. The relative orientation of Ser32 and Ile62 suggests that the Mms2 and Tsg101 Uev families use different Uev surfaces to physically interact with Ub. A 200 ìM dissociation constant for the wild-type Mms2-Ub interaction was also determined. The systematic mutagenesis and testing of 14 Ubc13-Mms2 interface residues led to mutants with partial or complete disruption of binding and function. Using this data, a model involving the insertion of a specific Mms2-Phe residue into a unique Ubc13 hydrophobic pocket was created to explain the specificity of Mms2 for Ubc13, and not other E2s. In addition, the dissociation constant for the wild-type Ubc13-Mms2 heterodimer was determined to be approximately 50 nM. <p>The structural and functional studies strongly support the notion that Ubc13-Mms2 complex has the unique ability to conjugate Lys63-linked Ub chains. However, several reported instances of Lys63-linked Ub chains in vivo have not yet been attributed to Ubc13 or Mms2. To address the disparity I was able to demonstrate and map a physical interaction between Mms2 and Rsp5, an E3 implicated in Lys63-linked Ub conjugation. Surprisingly, it was found that MMS2 is not responsible for the RSP5-dependent Lys63-linked Ub conjugation of a plasma membrane protein. A possible explanation for the apparent paradox is presented.

Ubiquitylation is an indispensable post-translational modification system in eukaryotic cells that leads to the covalent attachment of a small ubiquitin (Ub) protein onto a target. The traditional and best-characterized role for ubiquitylation is a fundamental regulatory mechanism whereby target proteins are tagged with a characteristic Lys48-linked Ub chain that signals for their elimination through proteasomal degradation. Challenging this conventional wisdom is the finding that some ubiquitylated proteins are modified by Ub chains linked through Lys63, providing a molecular signal that is thought to be structurally and functionally distinct from Lys48-linked Ub chains. Of further interest and significance is that the Lys63-linked Ub chains are apparently synthesized through a novel biochemical mechanism employing a unique complex formed between a true Ub conjugating enzyme (E2), Ubc13, and an E2-variant (Uev), Mms2 (or Uev1A). The goal of this thesis was to employ structural and functional approaches in order to better characterize the Ubc13-Mms2 Lys63-linked Ub conjugation complex. <p>Error-free DNA damage tolerance (DDT) in the budding yeast is dependent on Lys63-linked Ub chains synthesized by Ubc13-Mms2 and thus provided the opportunity to experimentally test the function of the human UBC13 and MMS2 genes in a simple model organism. Human UBC13 and MMS2 were each shown to function in place of their yeast counterparts and in accordance, human Ubc13 was shown to physically interact with yeast Mms2, and vice versa. Two human MMS2 homologs were also tested and it was determined that UEV1A but not UEV1B can function in place of mms2 in yeast DDT. Physical interactions were observed between Ubc13 and Uev1A, but not between Ubc13 and Uev1B, suggesting that Ubc13-Uev complex formation is required for function. <p>In collaboration with a research group at the University of Alberta, crystal structure and NMR data were used to develop a mechanistic model for the conjugation of Lys63-linked Ub chains by the Ubc13-Mms2 heterodimer, whereby the special orientation of two Ub molecules facilitates a specific Ub-Ub linkage via Lys63. In order to help support the in vitro model and to determine how the Ubc13-Mms2 structure relates to biological function, I used a structure-based approach to direct the creation of point mutations within four key regions of the Ubc13-Mms2 heterodimer; the Ubc13 active-site, the Ubc13-E3 (Ub ligating enzyme) interface, the Mms2-Ub interface, and the Ubc13-Mms2 interface. <p>Underscoring the importance of the Ub conjugation by Ubc13-Mms2, a Ubc13-C87S active-site mutation was created that could bind to Mms2 but was unable to function in DDT. Regarding the Ubc13-E3 interface, a single Ubc13-M64A point mutation had a potent effect on disrupting Ubc13 function in DDT, as well as its physical interaction with Rad5, TRAF6, and CHFR. The results suggest that different RING finger E3s use the same Ubc13 surface to sequester the Ub conjugation activity of Ubc13-Mms2. Two human Mms2 mutations at Ser32 and Ile62, which are contained within the Mms2-Ub interface, were found to reduce the ability of Mms2 to bind Ub. When the corresponding yeast mutations are combined, a synergistic loss in DDT function is observed. The relative orientation of Ser32 and Ile62 suggests that the Mms2 and Tsg101 Uev families use different Uev surfaces to physically interact with Ub. A 200 ìM dissociation constant for the wild-type Mms2-Ub interaction was also determined. The systematic mutagenesis and testing of 14 Ubc13-Mms2 interface residues led to mutants with partial or complete disruption of binding and function. Using this data, a model involving the insertion of a specific Mms2-Phe residue into a unique Ubc13 hydrophobic pocket was created to explain the specificity of Mms2 for Ubc13, and not other E2s. In addition, the dissociation constant for the wild-type Ubc13-Mms2 heterodimer was determined to be approximately 50 nM. <p>The structural and functional studies strongly support the notion that Ubc13-Mms2 complex has the unique ability to conjugate Lys63-linked Ub chains. However, several reported instances of Lys63-linked Ub chains in vivo have not yet been attributed to Ubc13 or Mms2. To address the disparity I was able to demonstrate and map a physical interaction between Mms2 and Rsp5, an E3 implicated in Lys63-linked Ub conjugation. Surprisingly, it was found that MMS2 is not responsible for the RSP5-dependent Lys63-linked Ub conjugation of a plasma membrane protein. A possible explanation for the apparent paradox is presented.

Les évidences scientifiques révèlent l’implication des actions proinflammatoires de l’angiotensine II (Ang II) dans le développement de l’athérosclérose. Cependant, la caractérisation des bases moléculaires de l’Ang II sur le tissu vasculaire n’est pas totalement élucidée. La majorité des actions de l’Ang II implique l’activation d’une variété de cascades de signalisation dont les voies mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) ; c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), p38 kinases et extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) et l’activation du facteur de transcription NF-κB via le complexe IKK. Récemment, une nouvelle modification post-traductionnelle dans les actions de l’Ang II, soit la polyubiquitination de la sous-unité NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO) du complexe IKK, a été révélée. L’objectif de mon projet de recherche est de vérifier l’importance de la polyubiquitination en K63 tout en caractérisant les protéines impliquées dans la modification de NEMO dans des cellules musculaires lisses vasculaires (CMLV) exposées à l’Ang II. Notre étude suggère, selon une approche siARN combinant Ubc7 et Ubc13, la diminution de la phosphorylation du complexe IKK, de Akt et des MAPKs. De plus, nos résultats illustrent l’implication de TRAF6 dans la signalisation cellulaire de l’Ang II. Finalement, notre étude révèle la présence de la polyubiquitination en K63 dans la signalisation cellulaire de l’Ang II par chromatographie d’affinité. Cette étude met en évidence l’implication de la polyubiquitination en K63 dans la signalisation de l’Ang II dans des CMLV et implique Ubc13 et Ubc7 dans le remodelage vasculaire et l’inflammation dépendante de l’Ang II dans des CMLV. / Several studies have demonstrated that the proinflammatory and growth promoting actions of Angiotensin II (Ang II) are implicated in cardiovascular disease. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in Ang II actions are still not completely elucidated. Most of the known biological effects of Ang II are through the activation of several cell signaling pathways, such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways (MAPKs; c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), p38 kinases and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)), and nuclear factor kappaB transcription factor (NF-κB) pathway by IKK complex activation. Recently, another post-translational modification, polyubiquitination of the IKK complex sub-unit NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO) has been demonstrated to be implicated in Ang II signaling. The objective of my research project was to illustrate the importance of K63-linked polyubiquitination, and characterizing the proteins involved in the modification of NEMO in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) exposed to Ang II. Using siRNA, we show that Ubc7 and Ubc13 together are involved in MAPK, IKK and Akt phosphorylation in VSMC exposed to Ang II. Moreover, our results show that TRAF6, a ubiquitin ligase, is involved in Ang II signaling. Finally, our study reveals involvement of K63-linked polyubiquitination in Ang II signaling by chromatography affinity. Here, we report K63-linked polyubiquitination involvement in Ang II signaling and also identify Ubc7 and Ubc13 as a ubiquitin conjugating enzymes involved in MAPKs, ERK and NF-kB signalling pathway suggesting a role of these proteins in Ang II-dependent vascular remodelling and proinflammatory effects in VSMC.

No description available.