Thirty-four (6 M, 28 F) of 93 black bears (<i>Ursus americanus</i>) captured during summers 1995 and 1996 were equipped with radio-collars. The mean age of male and females captured was 2.5 (<u>n</u> = 63; 2 males not aged) and 4.4 (<u>n</u> = 28) years, respectively. The mean date of females in estrus was 24 July, and we observed one 1.5-year old female in estrus. The average age of primiparity of radio-collared females was 3.0 years; however, we documented fetuses present in a 2-year old noncollared female's reproductive tract. The average interbirth interval was 1.6 years and 95.4% of females without yearlings produced cubs. The mean litter size was 2.2 and the cub sex ratio was 1.3M:1F. Hunting, vehicle collisions, poaching, research, and euthanasia accounted for 80.5%, 5.5%, 5.5%, 5.5%, and 2.8%, respectively of the adult and juvenile male mortalities (<u>n</u> = 36). Hunting, vehicle collisions, and research each accounted for 2 of the adult and juvenile female mortalities (<u>n</u> = 6). Annual harvest rates for males in 1995 and 1996 were 36.1% and 45.5%, respectively; corresponding harvest rates for females were 0.0%, and 5.9%. Annual survival rates estimated with Kaplan-Meier for adult females, juvenile females, and cubs were 100.0%, 93.3%, and 70.3%, respectively. Maximum juvenile male survival rates were 52.0% in 1995 and 51.7% in 1996. Maximum adult male survival rates were 50.0% and 80.0% in 1995 and 1996, respectively. We monitored 31 bears for 39 bear winters with 100% of the known bears denning. Bears denned in trees (41%), rock cavities (32%), excavations (14%), snags (8%), and ground nests (5%). Chestnut oak (<i>Quercus prinus</i>; <u>n</u> = 9), red oak (<i>Q. rubra</i>; <u>n</u> = 8), and tulip-poplar (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>; <u>n</u> = 1) were used as tree dens. Habitat characteristics did not differ between ground dens and tree dens; however, older bears used ground dens more frequently (<u>Z</u> = -2.484, <u>P</u> = 0.013) than tree dens. Fifty-seven percent of bears denned on public land, and we documented one instance of den reuse. / Master of Science

The black bear (Ursus americanus) is an iconic species with cultural, economic and ecological importance in Vermont, USA. Bears exhibit a highly variable diet, and few studies have described bear diet in the state. Information on diet may provide insight into foraging behavior, thus allowing managers to better assess patterns of human-bear conflict. My objectives were to estimate the relative contribution of food items to bear diet and how factors including sex, habitat, food availability, and nuisance status describe patterns of consumption. I collected samples from bears and major food groups including C3 plants, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), corn (Zea mays), and human foods, then quantified diet using stable isotope analysis. Samples were collected from 71 bears, 547 plants, and 38 deer throughout Vermont. I also collected 12 corn samples, and 20 human hair samples to represent anthropogenic foods. I determined δ13C and δ15N isotope values for all samples, then used Bayesian mixing models to estimate the contribution of foods and effect of each factor on proportional contribution estimates. Nuisance status best described patterns of diet over other factors. Median percent contributions for non-nuisance bears were 73.2% C3 plants, 23.8% corn, 1.9% human foods, and 0.5% deer. Median percent contributions for nuisance bears were 64.6% C3 plants, 28.9% corn, 3.2% human foods, and 0.7% deer. Factors such as sex, habitat, and food availability exerted less effect on diet than expected. Proportional contribution of meat was lower than in some other parts of North America, suggesting bears forage differently in Vermont. Results provide the first statewide estimate of bear diet and indicate corn may represent a much larger component of diet than previously thought. In particular, bears labeled as nuisance animals may forage on greater proportions of corn throughout the year.

The long-term success of wildlife conservation depends on maximizing the benefits of limited funds and data in pursuit of population and habitat objectives. The ultimate currency for wildlife management is progress toward long-term preservation of ample, wild, free wildlife populations and to this end, funds must be wisely spent and maximal use made from limited data. Through simulation-based analyses, I evaluated the efficacy of various models for estimating population abundance from harvest data. Because managers have different estimators to choose from and can also elect to collect additional data, I compared the statistical performance of different estimation strategies (estimator + dataset) relative to the financial cost of data collection. I also performed a value of information analysis to measure the impact that different strategies have on a representative harvest management decision. The latter analysis is not based on the cost of data, but rather on the management benefit derived from basing decisions on different datasets. Finally, I developed a hybrid modeling framework for mapping habitat quality or suitability. This framework makes efficient use of expert opinion and empirical validation data in a single, updatable statistical structure. I illustrate this method by applying it across an entire state.

The present thesis surveys topic of taxonomic diversity and phylogeny of bears (Mammalia, Ursidae) and aspects of its contextual setting under effects of changing conceptual and methodological viewpoints. This problem is studied from several perspectives. The historical perspective is represented by a critical overview of the history of specific and infraspecific classification of bears with special respect to mutual influences of this classification and theoretical concepts of species accepted in particular periods. The perspective of material approach is exemplified by a material-based study of taxonomical and phyletic status of selected Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene ursine taxa. Along with deconstruction of some traditional hypotheses this produced a model explaining species diversification in ursine bears and its discussion in terms of factual relevance of included background concepts. In the pre-evolutionary period the bear species were usually understood broadly, as incipient immanent entities, yet exhibiting obvious certain infraspecific variability. This was established using definitions of varieties (mostly not identifiable with present subspecies or infraspecific taxa) considered as unstable modes of particular species. Although, in the post-Darwinian period, the concept and taxonomic...

Widely applicable, quantitative field methods are needed to gather wildlife data for conservation and management initiatives in Turkey. In order to evaluate the use of camera traps in forest habitats of Turkey, we conducted a 5 phase camera trap survey by using 16 passive infrared-triggered cameras with a total sampling effort of 1200 camera trap days in Yaylacik Research Forest, a 50 km2 forest patch of Yenice Forest in Karab&uuml / k during January-May 2006. The camera trap survey confirmed the presence of grey wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), wildcat (Felis silvestris), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), badger (Meles meles), pine marten (Martes martes), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) in the study area. The camera trap survey also revealed the presence of jackal (Canis aureus) and brown hare (Lepus europaeus), whose presence were not known by people living and working in the area. Contrary to the local belief, neither camera trapping survey nor ground survey confirmed the presence of lynx (Lynx lynx) in Yaylacik Research Forest. The wolf was observed to be crepuscular and the wildcat showed a diurnal activity pattern. Wildcat seemed to avoid other carnivores spatially and temporally. Simulation studies suggested that camera trap surveys should last 14 days for wolf, 13 days for wildcat, 10 days for pine marten, and 11 days for roe deer, while it is advisable to conduct longer surveys, probably 15-20 days, for wild boar, red fox and brown bears. The estimated population size for wildcat was 9 (SE=2.28227) with 95% confidence interval of 9 to 25 in the study area. A minimum of 6 brown bears were present in the study area. Our study indicated that the local knowledge about the presence of wildlife should be considered by researchers, but it cannot replace scientific surveys conducted by field biologists. This study was the first attempt to assess the presence, relative abundance, activity patterns and diversity of multiple mammal species by the use of camera trapping methodology in Turkey. The results suggest that camera trap surveys have the potential for gathering wildlife data at larger scales in Turkey, where information gap on large mammals is an obstacle for effective management and conservation of mammals.

No description available.

No description available.

The Mackenzie Delta region, NWT, has a short growing season and highly seasonal climate, and brown bears (Ursus arctos) there face many challenges obtaining their nutritional requirements. Consumption of meat by brown bears is linked to increases in population density, fecundity, growth and body size. I examined the use of Arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii), and broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus) as meat sources by Mackenzie Delta brown bears. As a preliminary step, I built an Arctic ground squirrel habitat model, using field-surveyed ground squirrel burrow locations. Using this model, I examined bears selection for Arctic ground squirrel habitat as a population, by sex and as individuals, and linked this to results of stable isotope analysis and site investigations. Bears showed little evidence of Arctic ground squirrel use at the population and sex level, but some individual bears appeared to prey heavily on ground squirrels, particularly during hyperphagia. I also described observations of a brown bear using broad whitefish in autumn, and used telemetry locations to show that other bears may also feed heavily on broad whitefish during hyperphagia. My research provides prey-specific evidence for intrapopulation niche variation among Mackenzie Delta brown bears. / Ecology

Concerns over human-bear conflict and questions about the ecology of Paunsaugunt Plateau's population of black bears (Ursus americanus) arose due to their visitation to popular recreation sites. Greater insight about bears and their habitat use provides a foundation for conflict mitigation and effective management decisions. Between 2014 and 2017, seventeen black bears (11 female, 6 male) were fitted with global positioning system (GPS) radio-collars so that we could track their locations, daily activity patterns, and ambient temperatures. By analyzing bear locations, we calculated annual and seasonal home ranges for 16 bears, including 25 den sites. Home ranges typically consisted of three dominant vegetation types, Utah juniper, ponderosa pine and Douglas fir. I used mixed effects models to better understand den site selection and found that slope (27.87 ± 2.03) was the most significant factor (p < 0.001). I also used mixed effects models to understand black bear selection of annual and seasonal home ranges. Predictor variables with the greatest effect (p < 0.001) were elevation (2419.99 ± 1.35) and aspect (138.44 ± 0.64), with coefficients of 1.128 and -1.483 respectively. Male annual home ranges (327.20 km2 ± 133.58 km2) were significantly larger (p = 0.035) than female home ranges (175.10 km2 ± 55.37 km2). However, annual home ranges for both sexes were larger than those during hyperphagia (p = 0.003) or mating (p = 0.004) seasonal home ranges, between which there was no difference (p = 0.451). Individual home ranges overlapped for most bears, consistent with their non-territorial nature. I found that bears avoided roads and lower elevations, while showing a preference for sloping terrain throughout the non-denning period. Paunsaugunt black bear home ranges are larger than any other black bear home ranges reported in literature. We determined weekly average distances and directions for all bears. For two bears, one male and one female, we determined daily averages and directions. Nine bears provided daily averages for 12 seasonal units across all four years. Activity patterns indicate the typical crepuscular pattern noted in normal bear populations that lack human habituation. Identifying areas core use areas and potential den sites is helpful to understanding black bear ecology and useful when making decisions about how to plan infrastructure and educate the public. This research indicates that Paunsaugunt black bears avoid human activity; however, we need continued research to help determine specific interactions between bears and anthropomorphic influences.

Pregnant polar bears (Ursus maritimus) construct maternal dens out of snow in the autumn where they give birth to and raise altricial young. In recent years, there has been a decrease in polar sea ice extent and thickness, which has led to changes in denning behavior. One such change in the southern Beaufort Sea (SBS) is that polar bears are selecting maternal den sites on land, rather than on unstable sea ice. This change, coupled with expanding petroleum exploration along Alaska's North Slope, heightens the likelihood of bear-human interactions at maternal den sites. The purpose of this research was to 1) describe polar bears' post-den emergence behavior, establishing a benchmark for comparison to identify behavioral changes associated with climate change and disturbance, and 2) explore factors influencing the efficacy of a currently used den detection method, forward-looking infrared (FLIR). Maternal den sites were observed along Alaska's North Slope from March to April of 2009 and 2010. The mean length of stay at den sites post-emergence was 11.3 ± 7.5 d. The mean date of den emergence was 14 March; abandonment 26 March. Adult females were generally inactive (58.4% out-of-den time) with standing being the most prevalent activity (49.9%). Cubs were generally active (76.7%), playing more than any other activity (45.3%). Bears spent the majority of their time in the den (97.3% for adult females and 99% for cubs) with short bouts of intermittent activity (× = 7 min 42 s). We documented the death of one member of a triplet polar bear litter at its den site. All three cubs showed low activity levels relative to other cubs observed, and one died within one week of den emergence. Necropsy confirmed that the dead cub had a low body weight and was malnourished. Capture later confirmed that the two surviving cubs were also undersized. Triplet litters are often smaller and suffer higher mortality rates than singletons and twins. This cub was not only a triplet but also born following 2 y of record minimum sea ice extent, both of which may have played a role in this cub's death. Concurrent with the den emergence portion of this work, we conducted a separate study to identify limitations and optimal conditions for locating dens using FLIR. We took handheld FLIR images of three artificial dens under varied conditions. We tested variables hypothesized to influence detectability with linear models using a zero-inflated negative binomial distribution. Solar radiation, wind speed, and den wall thickness reduced the likelihood of detecting dens. The negative effect of wind speed on detectability increased with increasing distance. To maximize the efficacy of hand-held FLIR, den surveys should be conducted when solar radiation is <16 w/m2 (night) and when wind speed is <10 km/h (6 mph). Adherence to these guidelines will maximize the protection FLIR can afford to denning bears.