The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a generalist omnivore that occupies diverse habitats and displays high levels of behavioral plasticity. Plasticity in foraging behavior can result in variable diets across a population, and allow individuals to use a greater variety of resources. The distribution of food in space and time may also be an important factor in determining brown bear resource selection as it can greatly influence foraging efficiency. Our objectives were to determine if seasonal brown bear home ranges were influenced by temporal availability and spatial distribution of resources and if deviation from an optimal diet influenced brown bear body condition. Understanding how the spatial and temporal distribution of food influences brown bear space use and the relationships between behavioral plasticity and the ability of populations to persist in dynamic environments could provide additional insights into the eco-evolutionary advantages of variable foraging behavior and ultimately population resilience.

Historically, black bears occurred throughout Mississippi but by 1932, <12 bears remained. Repatriation in neighboring states and conservation efforts in Mississippi have led to the recolonization of at least 2 subspecies (U. a. luteolus and U. a. americanus) of black bears in the state. I compiled available data to provide a synthesis of the history, current status, and management of black bears in Mississippi. Additionally, I used global positioning data collected from radio collared bears to determine the influence of distance to source population, cover type, distance to roads, distance to water, wetland reserve program areas, and human population density on black bear resource selection at various spatial scales. I studied characteristics of space use and resource selection of recolonizing bears in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley (Delta). I assessed the influence of environmental parameters at the female core annual home-range (using 50% kernel density estimator) and male and female seasonal and annual home-ranges (95% kernel density estimator). Distance to source population and distance to roads had significant influence at the core female home-range scale. I found a sex-based difference in annual and seasonal home-ranges. I also found that bears exhibited response to and selection for specific resources with an affinity toward hardwood stands, particularly young-aged hardwoods. My research illustrates the importance of analyzing resource selection at multiple scales to gain a full understanding of parameters that influence the recolonization of a bear population.

The Cooperative Alleghany Bear Study (CABS) was a 10-year study conducted on 2 areas and designed to investigate the ecology of a hunted population of American black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Alleghany Mountains of western Virginia. Over the course of our research, we handled 1,041 individual bears >18 months old and gathered reproductive data from females during 424 bear-winters. My analyses of 183 litters indicate that reproductive rates were high with relatively large litters (mean = 2.49 cubs / litter) and younger (3–4-year-old) females having smaller litters than older (> 5 years old) females. Overall cub sex ratios did not differ from 1M:1F; however, female cubs were over-represented in 4-cub litters. Most cubs were born in January (mean = January 17) and younger females had later parturition dates than older females. Bears on our study areas had relatively early ages at primiparity (mean = 3.8 years old) and few missed reproductive opportunities. Hard mast failure apparently resulted in periodic reproductive failures and subsequent reproductive synchrony, which I tracked using 5 indices. The amplitude of oscillations in reproductive synchrony dampened through time after each synchronizing event. The population contained substantially more females than males; however, males were more vulnerable to trapping than were females. Population size was determined using genetic and photographic capture-recapture estimators. Density estimates were relatively high and approached 1 bear / km2. Annual survival rates were high for cubs (0.87) and females (0.91). For males, annual survival rates were lower, particularly for 1–3-year-olds (0.57). Excluding hunting mortality, natural survival rates were high (0.98) for all >1-year-old bears on our study areas. The results of Leslie Matrix and Program RISKMAN models indicated a growing population. A Leslie Matrix model incorporating the effects of a 5-year-cyle of mast-failure-induced reproductive failure yielded a lambda = 1.13. To reach the objective of 0 population growth prescribed for some areas of Virginia, increased levels of hunting mortality on adult (>3-year-old) females would likely be necessary. / Ph. D.

We measured black bear (Ursus americanus) reproduction and cub survival during 1994 - 1998, and 1995 - 1999, respectively, in the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests in Virginia to determine age-specific and overall cub production and cub survival. We observed females in estrus between 6 June and 22 August; the mean date of estrus was 17 July. Ages of primiparity ranged between 3 and 5 years with an average of 3.36 years (n=11, SE=0.15). Average litter size for 1995 - 1998 was 2.32 cubs/litter (SE=0.11, n=53) and 85.7% of available females &ge; age 4 (those not accompanied by cubs) reproduced in a given den season. We monitored 98 (48M:50F) black bear cubs equipped with expandable radio-collars (Higgins 1997) or radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously between 1995 and 1999 to estimate cub survival. Kaplan-Meier staggered entry analysis provided 306-day survival rates for 82 cubs. The survival estimates for males and females were 73% (0.49, 0.96) and 91% (0.80, 1.00), respectively. The overall 306-day survival rate for all cubs was 81% (0.67,0.94) using Kaplan-Meier and 76% (0.63, 0.92) using Heisey-Fuller (Mayfield) methods. We also evaluated the utility of radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously in 42 (21M:21F) wild black bear (Ursus americanus) cubs from 2 study areas in Virginia between 1996 and 1999 to monitor first year cub survival. More than 64% (27 of 42) of the implants fell out prematurely (2-198 days), and 16.6% (7 of 42) failed for unknown reasons. Less than 5% (2 of 42) of these cubs denned wearing failed implants, and 9.5% (4 of 42) experienced mortality less than 1 month after implant surgery. About 9.5% (4 of 42) of implanted black bear cubs wore working transmitters through to the following den season. / Master of Science

I assessed genetic variation within and between 18 American black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in the southeastern United States using multilocus DNA fingerprinting techniques (Hinf I restriction digests, Jeffreys’ 33.15 probe). Band-sharing data indicated that American black bear populations (U. a. americanus) exhibit Significantly less genetic similarity both within and between populations (similarity within=0.66, similarity between=0.40) than do the Louisiana (U. a. luteolus) (similarity within=0.75, similarity between=0.58) and Florida (U. a. floridanus) (similarity within=0.75, Similarity between=0.57) black bear populations (p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis test, α=0.05 for multiple comparisons). Louisiana and Florida black bear populations share the same degree of genetic similarity within and between populations, and are more closely related to each other than they are to American black bear populations (p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis test, α=0.05 for multiple comparisons). I conclude that, based on genetic data, separate subspecies status may or may not be warranted for the Florida and Louisiana black bears; however, both groups of populations should be considered as distinct population segments for listing under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. I also assessed any genetic effects that may have been caused by translocation of bears from Minnesota to Louisiana and Arkansas. Analysis of band-sharing data indicated that any genetic impacts that may have been caused by the translocations were not statistically Significant. The bear population in Cook County, MN exhibits less within-population genetic similarity (similarity within=0.57) than bear populations in Louisiana and Arkansas (Similarities within=0.74). Populations in Louisiana and Arkansas are more closely related to each other (Similarity between=0.53) than they are to the population in Minnesota (similarity between=0.34) (p<0.001, Mann-Whitney test). These findings are in agreement with previous genetic and morphological studies of black bear populations in the southeastern United States. / Master of Science

Reported survival rates, dates of family breakup, and dispersal patterns for yearling and subadult bears in hunted black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in North America are scarce. We estimated survival rates of yearling and subadult black bears from a hunted population in western Virginia during 1999 - 2002. We captured and marked 307 different individual yearling and subadult bears on 2 study sites, and attached ear tag transmitters or radio collars to 54 (34M : 20F) 1-year-old, 52 (23M : 29F) 2-year-old, and 35 (8M : 27F) 3-year-old black bears. We used the known fate model in program MARK to estimate annual, non-hunting, and hunting season survival for radio-marked bears of each age and sex class. Additionally, we used mark-recapture data in the recaptures only, dead recoveries, and Burnham's combined models within program MARK to estimate annual survival for each age and sex class. One-, 2-, and 3-year-old female survivorship was 0.87 (95% C.I. 0.78 - 0.92), while 1-year male survivorship was 0.32 (95% C.I. 0.20 - 0.47), and 2- and 3-year-old male survivorship was 0.59 (95% C.I. 0.47 - 0.71) from the Burnham's combined model. Survival rates for 1-year-old females (χ2 = 6.20, P = 0.01) and 2-year-old females (χ2 = 7.74, P = 0.01) were higher than males in each age category, respectively. However, we detected no difference between 3-year-old females and 3-year-old males (χ2 = 2.61, P=0.11), likely due to small sample size of males (n = 4). Low yearling and subadult survival is not likely a cause for alarm due to the importance of adult female survival to population growth and the promiscuous mating system in black bear populations. Family breakup is an important event in the life history of black bears, marking the initial dispersal and home range construction of yearling bears, and perhaps marking the timing of estrus and breeding opportunities for adult females. We monitored 6 black bear family groups with 12 yearlings (6M : 6F) to determine the timing of family breakup; we intensely monitored 3 of the family groups to document home range establishment and movements by 5 subadult bears (2M : 3F) following separation from their mothers. Estimated dates of family breakup were 28 May and 2 June. Family breakups occurred before peak dates of estrus on our 2 western Virginia study areas. We detected 2 reassociations between a mother and her yearling offspring. Following family breakup, female yearlings (n = 3) remained within or partially on their mothers' home range while subadult males (n = 2) left their mothers' home ranges. All yearlings (n = 5) shared ≥50% of post-breakup home range with their mothers. We studied the movements of 31 (11M : 20F) subadult black bears born on our 2 study areas in western Virginia and 70 (44M : 26F) subadult bears captured during the summer on the study areas for dispersal. No radio-marked, resident, subadult female bears exhibited dispersal behavior while 3 of 11 (27%) radio-marked, resident, subadult males dispersed (P = 0.04). Resident and summer capture male bears moved greater distances than females from yearling den location (χ2 = 8.54, P = 0.01, df = 2) or summer capture location (χ2 = 22.02, P < 0.01, df = 2); no female moved > 10 km between initial and final locations (x = 2.7 km, range 0.2 - 9.0 km). The greatest subadult male movement was 80 km (x = 13.4 km, range 0.6 -0.80 km), and dispersal movements primarily occurred within the 1 and 2-year-old age classes. Direction of movement between initial and final locations for dispersing bears was not random (Rayleigh's r = 0.56, P = 0.02); bears appeared to follow the orientation of the predominant ridgelines and avoided leaving the national forest. / Master of Science

Late Pleistocene American black bears (Ursus americanus) often overlap in size with Pleistocene brown bears (U. arctos), occasionally making them difficult to diagnose. Large U. americanus have previously been distinguished from U. arctos by the length of the upper second molar (M2). However, the teeth of fossil U. americanus sometimes overlap size with U. arctos. As such, there is need for a more accurate tool to distinguish the two species. Here, 2D geometric morphometrics is applied to the occlusal surface of the M2 to further assess the utility of this tooth for distinguishing U. americanus and U. arctos specimens. When combined with an Ecological Niche Model of U. americanus and U. arctos in North America from the Last Glacial Maximum, this morphometric technique can be applied to key regions. A case of two Pleistocene specimens previously identified as U. arctos from eastern North America exemplifies the utility of this combination.

La conservation des populations animales autour desquelles existe une controverse passe entre autres par une compréhension de l’écologie de l’espèce, mais également par une analyse des attitudes humaines vis-à-vis de sa présence. Cependant, ces deux aspects sont rarement mobilisés ensemble au sein de travaux combinant sciences de l’environnement et sociologie. Nous proposons ici une étude portant sur la population d’ours brun (Ursus arctos) résidant dans les Pyrénées, intégrant à la fois dynamique de la population et de sa distribution, et une analyse de l’attitude des Pyrénéens vis-à-vis des plantigrades. Nous conduisons également une réflexion sur les méthodes à employer afin d’intégrer ces résultats au sein d’une approche socio-écologique. Nos modèles écologiques, qui utilisent des données de suivi obtenues dans le cadre d’un partenariat transfrontalier entre France, Andorre et Espagne, mettent en évidence une augmentation des effectifs et une réduction de la distribution de la population entre 2008 et 2014. Si ces conclusions ne semblent pas aller dans le sens d’une dégradation rapide de leur état de conservation, les ours pyrénéens restent menacés du fait de leurs faibles effectifs et du fort taux de consanguinité au sein de la population. Notre enquête sociologique, réalisée dans les communes sur lesquelles l’ours est ou a été présent entre 2008 et 2013, a mis en évidence une hétérogénéité spatiale dans l’attitude des habitants des Pyrénées sur la question de l’ours, avec notamment des variations significatives en fonction de leurs lieux de naissance et de résidence. Nous discutons ensuite d’une approche intégrant résultats de sociologie et d’écologie avec le but de créer un modèle pouvant servir d’outil à un responsable chargé de la gestion ou de la résolution du conflit, en analysant les méthodes à notre disposition, leurs avantages et leurs limites. Nous concluons sur l’intérêt des approches pluridisciplinaire dans la gestion des controverses autour de la conservation de populations animales. / The conservation of controversial animal populations requires an understanding of the species’ ecology, but also an analysis of the human attitudes towards its presence. However, those two aspects are rarely studied together through a combination of environmental sciences and sociology. Here we study the brown bear (Ursus arctos) population residing in the Pyrenees mountains, analyzing both population dynamics and distribution, and the attitudes of Pyrenean people towards the species. We also ponder on the methods to use to combine these results in a socio-ecological approach. Our ecological models, which use monitoring data obtained through a crossborder partnership between France, Andorra and Spain, highlight an increase of population size and a reduction of its distribution between 2008 and 2014. If those conclusions do not seem to indicate a quick degradation of their conservation status, Pyrenean brown bears remain threatened by low numbers and high inbreeding in the population. A sociological study was performed in the municipalities where bear was or had been present between 2008 and 2013. We found spatial heterogeneity in the attitudes of Pyrenean people regarding bears, with significant variations depending on where they were born and where they currently live. We follow by discussing an approach that combines sociological and ecological results, with the goal of building a model that can be used as a tool for someone responsible for managing or solving the conflict; to do this, we analyze the methods available, their strengths and limits. We conclude on the importance of interdisciplinary approaches when managing controversies over wildlife conservation.

De som arbetar där brunbjörnen (Ursus arctos L.) lever riskerar att påverkas genom olycksfall och ohälsa, vilket kan leda till ett arbetsmiljöproblem. Björnpopulationen har efter upp- och nedgångar ökat senaste årtiondena vilket har ökat incidenterna. Syftet med studien var att kartlägga hur anställda som arbetar ensam till fots i fält inom skogsnäringen påverkas av björnens närvaro i skogen och att utreda vad som skulle kunna göra skogen till en säkrare arbetsplats genom att motverka ohälsa och olycksfall kopplat till björnens närvaro. En litteraturstudie och en enkätstudie gjordes för att uppfylla syftet. Resultatet av enkätstudien blev tvetydigt eftersom respondenterna var positivt inställda till björn trots att majoriteten kände sig illa till mods på grund av den. En kollega ansågs vara en trygghet trots att väldigt få var emot ensamarbete. Av respondenterna hade majoriteten varit med om minst ett björnmöte. Som slutsats; utbilda, förekom och försvara.

Human-bear interactions are an important consideration of bear biology, as interactions can lead to destruction of property as well as injury or death for both human and bear. Successful analysis of why these interactions occur can lead to appropriate preventative measures and mitigation of further conflict. Bryce Canyon National Park (BRCA) is comprised of relatively poor bear habitat, but a black bear population exists on the Paunsaugunt Plateau, on which the park occupies the eastern edge. Park managers expressed interest in learning more about bear movements and, specifically, bear use of anthropogenic features following a number of human-bear incidents located at backcountry campsites within park boundaries. By analyzing data from GPS radio-collared bears, trail cameras, existing literature, park incident reports and in-depth campsite assessments, we were able to show how bears are using both natural and anthropogenic features on the Bryce landscape. Campsites were assessed for bear habitat, displacement and encounter potential in order to establish an overall human-bear conflict potential. AIC model selection and resource selection functions using GPS collar data showed that bears selected for some anthropogenic features (campsites, springs), while actively avoiding others (trails, roads). Trail camera data, existing literature and park incident reports all pointed toward use of trails. We then considered all data sources used in the analysis and compiled rankings of human-bear conflict potential for each of the backcountry campsites within BRCA, and submitted a detailed report of findings, conclusions and recommendations to NPS personnel. Second, we investigated human-bear interactions at polar bear dens sites on Alaska's North Slope. As parturient female polar bears in the Southern Beaufort Sea subpopulation increasingly construct maternal dens on coastal land features rather than sea ice, they become more likely to interact with industry and other human activity. We wanted to understand what levels of human interaction could lead to disturbance of denning polar bears, and what types of responses were being exhibited by bears following those interactions. We subdivided potential disturbance stimuli into groups based on their size, motion and sound and the used AIC model selection techniques and multinomial logistic regression to analyze records of human-bear interactions at den sites ranging from 1975 through the present day. We found significant probabilities of varying levels of bear disturbance response among a number of stimuli and intensities. However, denning bear families were overall more tolerant of human activity near den sites than expected. Den abandonments were rare, and we documented no cases of reproductive failure following a disturbance event. We hope that our results from the analysis can be used to further enhance management of industry when operating in polar bear denning habitat.