This project was initiated in an attempt to address the paucity of data on Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) in Mainland China. Field work was carried out from May 2004 – August 2006 within the Tangjiahe National Nature Reserve in northwestern Sichuan Province, China. Initial methodology relied on trapping and GPS radio-collaring bears, but due to extreme difficulty with capturing a sufficient sample size, I expanded the study to include reproduction, feeding analysis from scats and sign, and occupancy modeling from sign surveys. I documented the home ranges of an adult female (100% MCP = 107.5km2, n=470 locations) and a sub-adult female (100%MCP = 5.9km2, n=36 locations) Asiatic black bear. I also documented two birthing occasions with a total of four male cubs produced and eight bear den sites. I collected feeding data from 131 scat samples and 200 bear sign transects resulting in 50 identified food items consumed by Asiatic black bears. I also employed the program PRESENCE to analyze occupancy data using both a standard grid repeated sampling technique and an innovative technique of aging bear sign along strip transect surveys to represent repeated bear occupancy over time. Conservation protection patrolling and soft mast were shown to be the most important factors determining the occupancy of an area by Asiatic black bears in Tangjiahe Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China. / Master of Science

Cette thèse traite de l'application de l'outil moléculaire pour la gestion, la conservation et la compréhension de la biologie et du comportement des espèces animales. Nous avons étudié l'ours brun (Ursus arctos) en tant qu'espèce modèle et la population d'ours bruns de Scandinavie en tant que cas d'étude. La première partie de cette thèse est une partie méthodologique, dans laquelle nous avons développé des aspects techniques en biologie moléculaire et en analyse de parenté. La seconde partie concerne l'application de ces outils moléculaires pour estimer les tailles de population et comprendre les systèmes d'appariement.<br /> Les méthodes non invasives sont de plus en plus utilisées en génétique des populations car elles ne nécessitent pas la manipulation ni le dérangement de l'animal étudié et sont particulièrement recommendabls pour l'étude des populations en danger d'extinction. Cependant, l'ADN extrait de ce type d'échantillons, tels que poils ou fèces, est en général dégradé et/ou en faible quantité, ce qui peut conduire à des erreurs de génotypage. Dans le but d'accroître la qualité et quantité de l'extrait d'ADN, nous avons mis au point une métode PCR (polymerase chain reaction) en deux étapes (“multiplex pre-amplification”). Cette méthode a été testée sur différentes espèces et, en comparaison avec une approche PCR conventionnelle, a permis d'améliorer l'amplification d'ADN et de diminuer le taux d'erreur. Pour amplifier plus spécifiquement l'ADN à partir d'échantillons non invasifs d'ours brun, nous avons également défini de nouvelles amorces microsatellites ainsi qu'un marqueur de sexe spécifique, et combiné une PCR en nid avec la méthode “multiplex pre-amplification”. Ces nouvelles approches peuvent être transposées à d'autres espèces pour lesquelles les méthodes conventionnelles ne sont pas appropriées à cause d'une faible quantité/qualité d'ADN. <br />Les erreurs de génotypage sont un sujet « tabou » dans les études de génétique des populations, malgré leur incidence dans la plupart des jeux de données et le biais qu'elles peuvent causer dans l'interprétation des résultats. Nous avons considéré quatre cas d'étude représentant une large variété d'investigations en génétique des populations, pour détecter les erreurs de génotypage et identifier leurs causes. Dans ces jeux de données, le taux d'erreur estimé variait de 0.8% à 2.6% , selon l'organisme étudié et le marqueur utilisé. Les sources d'erreur principales étaient les pertes d'allèles pour les microsatellites et les différences d'intensité de pics pour les AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), ainsi que des erreurs d'origine humaine dans les deux cas. Nous présentons des suggestions pour limiter et quantifier les erreurs de génotypage à chaque étape du processus et recommandons le report systématique du taux d'erreur dans les études de génétique des populations. <br />Les analyses de parenté basées sur les génotypes multilocus sont largement utilisées pour estimer les succès reproducteurs, les appariements et la fitness dans les populations naturelles. Les approches proposées sont basées sur des estimations du maximum de vraisemblance ou des inférences Bayésiennes et restent en général assez théoriques et difficiles à appliquer pour les biologistes. Il existe un réel manque de logiciels capables de considérer plusieurs générations d'individus et permettant la détermination des deux parents sans hypothèse à priori. Le logiciel PARENTE, que nous avons développé, détermine les maternités, paternités ou les deux parents simultanément, basé sur la compatibilité des génotypes multilocus (marqueurs diploïdes codominants) et des dates de naissance et de mort des individus (si disponibles). Ce logiciel calcule également la probabilité de parenté à partir des fréquences alléliques, du taux d'échantillonnage de la population et du taux d'erreur de génotypage. <br />Les estimations de taille de population sont essentielles pour la bonne gestion et conservation des espèces. Cependant, de manière générale, peu d'études évaluent la précision des estimations obtenues. Nous avons, dans un premier temps, comparé quatre estimateurs de taille de population, basés sur des méthodes génétiques non invasives. Deux méthodes utilisaient des indices de raréfaction et deux étaient basées sur des estimateurs de capture-marquage-recapture (CMR). Au total, 1904 fèces d'ours bruns ont été collectés sur deux années consécutives sur le terrain (49 000-km2 en Suède centrale). Les estimations variaient de 378 à 572 ours en 2001 et de 273 à 433 ours en 2002, selon l‘estimateur utilisé. La détermination d'une taille de population minimale obtenue à partir de données de radio-télémétrie nous a permis de conclure que l'estimation donnée par une des méthodes de CMR était la plus précise. Cet estimateur incluait une hétérogénéité et une variation temporelle dans les probabilités de détection, ce qui paraissait réaliste dans notre échantillonnage. Deuxièmement, nous avons évalué la fiabilité de trois méthodes de terrain traditionnelles en comparaison avec la méthode génétique la plus performante, dans une aire d'étude plus réduite (7 328-km2). Les trois méthodes de terrain tendaient à sous-estimer la taille de population ; la méthode génétique paraissait être la plus exacte. Nous avons conclu qu'environ 550 (482-648) ours étaient présents dans l'aire de 49 000-km2 et 223 (188-282) ours étaient présents dans l'aire de 7 328-km2. Nous suggérons que la population d'ours a atteint une densité de saturation dans l'aire centrale et disperse à présent sur les bords de cette aire centrale. Une analyse en termes de coûts/bénéfices a démontré que la méthode génétique était moins onéreuse que la méthode de terrain la plus fiable. De plus, elle est préférable d'un point de vue éthique. En conclusion, nous recommandons l'utilisation de méthodes génétiques basées sur un principe de CMR, pour estimer les tailles de population sur de larges aires. Nous insistons sur l'importance d'un effort d'échantillonnage adéquat et, en cas d'échantillonnage biaisé, nous conseillons le calibrage avec des estimations indépendantes, si possible. Nous recommandons La collecte d'un nombre d'échantillons supérieur de 2,5 à 3 fois le nombre « présumé » d'animaux. Ces études ont également confirmé que la gestion actuelle de la population d'ours a été bénéfique et que cette population est actuellement dans un bon statut de conservation.<br />La connaissance des systèmes d'appariement est importante dans la compréhension de la sélection naturelle. Nous avons étudié deux aspects majeurs du système d'appariement de l'ours brun : les stratégies d'appariement employées par les deux sexes en relation avec l'infanticide sexuellement sélectionné (SSI) et la sélection du partenaire par la femelle. L'infanticide, le meurtre de jeunes non sevrés, peut être considéré comme sexuellement sélectionné si les trois conditions suivantes sont réunies : i) l'infanticide réduit le délai du prochain oestrus de la femelle ; ii) le mâle commettant l'infanticide n'est pas le père des jeunes tués ; iii) le mâle commettant l'infanticide produit la portée suivante de la femelle. Nous avons documenté huit cas d'infanticide sur le terrain. A partir d'observations et d'échantillons collectés sur sites, nous avons vérifié que les trois conditions pour le SSI étaient vérifiées. Cela suggère que le SSI pourrait être une stratégie adaptative pour le mâle chez ce carnivore non social. Contrairement aux espèces sociales où les mâles immigrants tuent les jeunes, la plupart des mâles commettant l'infanticide étaient résidents chez les ours scandinaves. Ceci implique qu'ils sont capables de différencier leurs propres jeunes des jeunes non apparentés, probablement en reconnaissant les femelles avec lesquelles ils se sont accouplés l'année précédente. De plus, nous avons démontré génétiquement un minimum de 14.5% de paternités multiples (28% pour les portées de 3 jeunes ou plus). La promiscuité des femelles, dans le but de confondre les paternités, pourrait donc être une contre-stratégie adaptative pour éviter le SSI. D'autre part, nous avons évalué sur quels critères les femelles ours bruns sélectionnaient leur partenaire reproductif. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les femelles pourraient faire face à un dilemme: soit choisir un partenaire de bonne qualité d'un point de vue phénotypique, comme suggéré par les théories de choix du partenaire, soit s'accoupler avec des mâles susceptibles de commettre l'infanticide l'année suivante, c'est à dire les plus proches géographiquement. Nous avons conclu que les femelles sélectionnaient significativement les mâles les plus proches mais aussi les plus hétérozygotes, les plus gros et les plus âgés. Nous suggérons que les femelles ours s'accouplent avec les mâles les plus proches comme contre-stratégie au SSI et exercent un choix post-copulatoire du partenaire reproducteur, basé sur des critères morphologiques tels qu'une large taille corporelle, ou sur des critères de statut de dominance, reflétant la qualité génétique du mâle.

This study examined two different aspects of black bear (Ursus americanus) ecology in Utah. First, we determined the post-denning behaviors of female black bears in order to help management agencies protect bears from human disturbances as well as set spring hunts that minimize the taking of females with dependent young. We looked at the timing of den emergence (X = 25 March), the number of days at the den site post emergence (X = 11 days), and departure (X = 8 April) for female black bears in Utah from 2011—2013. We also analyzed the effects of cohort (lone female, female with cubs, and female with yearlings), region of Utah, year, elevation, and weather on emergence, departure, and total number of days at den. Lastly, we describe behaviors observed at the den site. We found that first emergence was significantly correlated with cohort and spring temperature. Departure date was significantly correlated with geographic region, spring temperature during emergence and departure, and temperature the spring and summer before denning. Total number of days at den was significantly correlated with cohort and last frost date from the year before. Bears spent little of the post-denning period outside of the dens (X = 9.8% of total observation time). When outside of dens, bears were often observed walking, lying down, sitting and standing. We also observed unique behaviors, including gathering nest materials, nursing, and ingesting. Dens were frequently visited by other wildlife as well. Second, we analyzed conflict between humans and black bears in Utah. The Utah Division of Wildlife Resources initiated a black bear sightings and encounters database in 2003. We upgraded this database by gathering available records and organizing them into a new database for analysis using Microsoft Access®. From 2003—2013 there were 943 records, with 499 bear-human encounters, 33 incidents, 10 attacks, 208 property damages, 187 sightings, and 6 vehicle collisions. Utah county had the highest number of events (n = 115). The majority of events took place at campsites (n = 363). Summer was the most common season for events (n = 715). Time of day was frequently not reported, but when it was, most events occurred at night (n = 173). We found no significant increase in the number of events over the last ten years. We also found no significant relationship between the number of events per year and drought data. The highest number of events involved single bears (n = 843), and over half of events had food or garbage available for the bear (n = 475).

The convergence of three young scientific disciplines (ecology, geospatial sciences, and remote sensing) has generated unique advancements in wildlife research by connecting ecological data with remote sensing data through the application of geospatial techniques. Ecological datasets may contain spatial and sampling biases. By using geospatial techniques, datasets may be useful in revealing landscape scale (e.g., statewide) trends for wildlife populations, such as population recovery and human-wildlife interactions. Specifically, black bear populations across North America vary greatly in their degree of distribution stability. The black bear population in Michigan may be considered stable or secure, whereas the population in Missouri is currently recolonizing. The focus of the research in this dissertation is to examine the ecological and anthropogenic impacts 1) on human-black bear interactions in Michigan (see Chapter 2) and 2) on black bear presence in Missouri (see Chapter 3), through the use of black bear reports provided by the public to the state wildlife agencies. By using generalized linear modeling (GLM) and maximum entropy (MaxEnt), I developed spatial distribution models of probability of occurrence/presence for the 2 study areas (Michigan and Missouri). For the Missouri study, I quantified the spatiotemporal shifts in the probability of bear presence statewide. The results from my statewide studies corroborate previous local-scale research based on rigorous data collection. Overall, human-black bear interactions (e.g., wildlife sightings, conflicts), while very dynamic, appear greatest in forested and rural areas where the preferred habitat for black bears (i.e., forest) intersects with low density anthropogenic activities. As both human and black bear populations continue to expand, it is reasonable to expect human-black bear interactions to spatiotemporally increase across both study areas. The results from my studies provide wildlife managers with information critical to management decisions such as harvest regulations and habitat conservation actions across the landscape and through time. The ability to detect and monitor ecological changes through the use of geospatial techniques can lead to insights about the stressors and drivers of population-level change, further facilitating the development of proactive causeocused management strategies.

Deer (<i> Odocoileus </i> spp.) are an important cultural and economic resource. They are the most popular game species in the United States and the number one driver of conservation funding. On the other hand, they also cause damage to resources including to the agricultural industry, private property and to humans via deer vehicle collisions. Many areas in eastern North America have experienced a decline in white-tailed deer (<i> Odocoileus virginianus </i>) populations over the past twenty years concurrent with changes in landscape, deer harvest strategies, and increasing and expanding black bear (<i> Ursus americanus </i>) and coyote (<i> Canis latrans </i>) populations. Most studies have addressed this problem at small spatial and temporal scales and in areas where predation was assumed to be limiting population growth. We evaluated white-tailed deer fawn recruitment both directly and indirectly at relatively broader spatial and temporal scales. We studied fawn survival on Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia, USA from 2008–2019. We used the Kaplan-Meier estimator, and Cox-proportional hazards models to assess annual survival and factors that influence hazard risk such as sex, weather, landscape composition and configuration and food availability. On Marine Corps Base Quantico, we found an increase in red oak mast abundance increases survival and probability of fawn survival was higher during the first interval of the study (2008–2010; 0.71 [0.52–0.96]; survival probability [CI95%]) than the last three intervals (2011–2013; 0.46 [0.30–0.70]; 2014–2016; 0.48 [0.35–0.66] and 2017–2019; 0.50 [0.39–0.63]). We also found that predation was the leading source of mortality. We assessed recruitment using lactation status from hunter harvest data collected by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries during a 22-year period in 30 counties in the Appalachian Mountains of western Virginia. We predicted lactation status as a function of landscape composition and configuration, oak mast abundance, weather, age, and predator detection rates using generalized linear mixed models. We found land cover diversity index positively and black bear detection rate negatively influenced recruitment. Age also predicted lactation status with middle-aged females (3.5–4.5 years old) having a higher lactation probability than mature (≥5.5 years old) age and young (2.5 years old) age class deer. Based on these findings, recruitment is likely to be greater in areas that are heterogeneous. Therefore, if an increase in recruitment is desired silvicultural practices such as fire and timber harvest could be used to permanently change land cover types. These silvicultural practices could also be used to increase the number of oaks on the landscape, and augment production of mature oaks as red oak mast abundance influenced fawn survival. Also reducing predation by manipulating predator densities could improve recruitment. Another potential option which needs further research, would be to reduce predator efficiency by increasing hiding cover for fawns. / Master of Science / Deer (<i> Odocoileus </i> spp.) are an important cultural and economic resource. They are the most popular game species in the United States and the number one driver of conservation funding. Conversely, they also cause damage to resources including to the agricultural industry, private property and to humans via deer vehicle collisions. Some areas in eastern North America have experienced a decline in white-tailed deer (<i> Odocoileus virginianus </i>) populations over the past twenty years concurrent with the colonization of coyotes (<i> Canis latrans </i>) as well as changes in habitat. Therefore, we aimed to determine white-tailed deer fawn survival rates and factors affecting recruitment across a large spatial and temporal scale. Recruitment is when an individual becomes part of the reproductive population. However, for harvestable populations, recruitment is when individuals can be legally harvested for the first time. On Marine Corps Base Quantico from 2008–2019, in Virginia, USA we found that probability of fawn survival was higher during the first interval of the study (2008–2010; 0.71 [0.52–0.96]; survival probability [CI95%]) than the last three intervals (2011–2013; 0.46 [0.30–0.70]; 2014–2016; 0.48 [0.35–0.66] and 2017–2019; 0.50 [0.39–0.63]). We also discovered predation was the leading cause of death and probability of survival increased with increasing red oak mast abundance. Over a large spatial (30 counties) and temporal (22 years) scale we examined fawn recruitment by predicting lactation status of female harvested white-tailed deer in the Appalachians Mountains of western Virginia. We found land cover diversity index positively and black bear (<i> Ursus americanus </i>) detection rate negatively influenced recruitment. Age also predicted lactation status with middle-aged females (3.5–4.5 years old) having a higher lactation probability than mature (≥5.5 years old) age and young (2.5 years old) age class deer. Based on these findings, recruitment is likely to be greater in areas that have a mixture of land cover types. Therefore, if an increase in recruitment is desired silvicultural practices such as fire and timber harvest could be used to permanently change land cover types. These silvicultural practices could also be used to increase the number of oaks on the landscape, and augment production of mature oaks as red oak mast abundance influenced fawn survival. Also reducing predation by manipulating predator densities could improve recruitment. Overall, we found diversity of land cover types, food availability, predators, and age influences population dynamics of white-tailed deer.

Long-term diet patterns based on stable isotope analysis may be helpful to understand changes in food selection of black bears (Ursus americanus) over time and guide management programs to reduce human-bear conflicts. An enriched stable carbon isotope signature indicates an anthropogenic food source in the diet and an enriched nitrogen signature indicates a higher tropic level for a species. I examined longitudinal feeding patterns from 117 hair samples of black bears live captured in Great Smoky Mountains National Park during 1980–2001 using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis from hair samples. I developed a set of a priori models to examine if sex, age class, year, weight class, total hard mast index, white oak index (Quercus spp.), red oak index (Quercus spp.), nuisance status and hog harvest (Sus scrofa) affected stable isotope signatures. I used model averaging and an estimator of the unconditional variance was used to account for model uncertainty. The δ[delta]13C signatures differed by weight class with above average weight, (ß[Beta] = 0.76‰; 95% CI = 0.28 to 1.23) and average weight (ß[Beta] = 0.42‰; CI = 0.06 to 0.78) showing enriched values compared to below average bears. Bears had enriched δ[delta]15N signatures in years with low white oak mast production (ß[beta] = -0.19, CI = -0.34 to -0.03) and depleted when white oak hard mast was abundant. Sub adult bears had enriched δ[delta]15N signatures compared to adult and older adult bears. Variation of nitrogen values was small during 1980–1991 ( = 2.57, SD = 0.28) but increased substantially during 1992–2000 ( = 2.29, SD = 0.71) when there was substantial variation in hard mast production. Bears in better physical condition appear more likely to access anthropogenic food sources. In years of low white oak acorn production, the larger bears and sub adult bears are more likely to turn to alternative food sources. The long term variation detected in this study is important in identifying which bears are potentially more likely to seek out the anthropogenic food sources when changes occur in availability of natural foods.

No description available.

Large carnivores are among the most challenging species to conserve in our modern and crowded world. Having large spatial requirements and living in low density, they generally require wide and relatively undisturbed areas. In Europe, one of the most anthropized areas of the planet, these needs must be fulfilled in a complex human-dominated landscape. The reintroduced brown bear population living in the Central Alps represents one of the most emblematic examples of a constrained carnivore: despite a steady population increase in the first few years after reintroduction, the population did not substantially expand its range, nor has the Alpine-Dinaric metapopulation been reestablished as envisioned. Although humans have lived in the Alps for centuries, little is known about their impact on the bear population. In other environments humans are known to function as a “super-predator” by changing habitats, competing for space, consuming resources, and harvesting, which alters the ecological niche of animals, especially large carnivores. This dissertation aims to evaluate this phenomenon by assessing the effects of human disturbance on brown bears in the Alps. Anthropogenic disturbance is generally assessed by structural proxies, such as infrastructure and land use, which overlook the impact of human presence. In the first Chapter, we developed the Cumulative Outdoor activity Index (COI) to derive anthropogenic disturbance using crowdsourced data by Strava and validated it with ground truth observations derived from a local camera trapping survey. The intensity of COI provided an effective measure of functional anthropogenic disturbance, and it outperformed all commonly-used proxies of structural disturbance in predicting bear habitat use. When displacement is not an option because of habitat limitations and social mechanisms, bear mobility may clash with human activity. During the moments of lowest mobility, such as resting periods, animals have decreased ability to cope with risky situations, and therefore the selection of suitable resting areas is crucial for the long-term survival of individuals. In the second Chapter, we measured multi-scale response to risk perception (i.e., COI) and resource proximity using bedding sites by GPS radio-collared adult brown bears in the Alps. To map resources across the study area, we developed a GIS-database combining spatial and non-spatial ecological information to map fruit availability. We observed that bears apply a security-food trade-off strategy, avoiding functional anthropogenic disturbance while in proximity to resources. In the third Chapter, we explicitly tested the effect of an abrupt interruption of human mobility during COVID-19 lockdown on bears’ use of ecological corridors. Using bear occurrences reported to local authorities during the recent COVID-19 outbreak, we observed that bears used human-dominated areas more frequently, approached more intensively hot spots for road crossing network, and used areas further from the population core areas more often than previous years, suggesting that connectivity increased with reduced human mobility. In a comparatively human-free system, for the fourth Chapter we used longitudinal morphometric data to analyze drivers of changes in body mass as part of an international collaboration with biologists studying the grizzly bear in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Specifically, we analyzed changes in lean body mass and fat percentage during years of major ecosystem perturbations. We observed that individual lean body mass during the last two decades was primarily associated with population density, but not body fat percentage, showing density-dependent factors. Our combined findings (Chapters 1-3) showed that brown bears have to adapt their space use, movement, and resource proximity as a result of functional anthropogenic disturbance. In Chapter 4 we explored one effect of unconstrained bear space use on individuals, as manifested through density-dependent effects on body size. In the Alps, however, we found multiple instances of the human-super predator outcompeting bears so as to make density-dependent effects likely less significant as compared to human-caused mortality. These effects could occur in a variety of socio-ecological contexts across Europe, jeopardizing the long-term establishment of both newly reintroduced bear populations, as well as spatially limiting those naturally present in the environment. In response to disturbance, bears have had to reduce their ecological niche in human-dominated landscapes. Allowing humans and bears to coexist in the same landscape is a challenging task, but it is essential for the long-term survival of this newly reintroduced population that are otherwise at risk of extinction.

This dissertation studies a local manifestation of ecclesiastical reform in the medieval county of Savoy: the twelfth-century transformation of secular canons into Augustinian regular canons at the church of Sts. Peter and Ursus in the alpine town of Aosta (now Italy). I argue that textual sources, material culture, and the practice of place together express how the newly reformed canons established their identity, shaped their material environment, and managed their relationship with the unreformed secular canons at the cathedral. The pattern of regularization in Aosta—instigated by a new bishop influenced by ideas of canonical reform—is only one among several models for implementing reform in medieval Savoy. This study asserts the importance of this medieval county as a center for reforming efforts among a regional network of churchmen, laymen, and noblemen, including the count of Savoy, Amadeus III (d. 1148). After a prologue and introduction, chapter 1 draws on traditional textual evidence to recount the history of reform in medieval Savoy. Chapters 2 through 4 focus on the twelfth-century sculpted capitals in the cloister built to accommodate the common life of the new regular canons. Several of the historiated capitals portray the biblical siblings, Martha and Mary, and Leah and Rachel, as material metaphors that reflect and reinforce the active and contemplative lives of the Augustinian canons. Other capitals represent the regular canons’ assertion of their precedence over the cathedral canons and suggest tensions between the two communities. The final chapter examines thirteenth-century conflicts over bell-ringing and ecclesiastical processions in the urban topography of Aosta to illustrate how the regular and secular canons continued to negotiate their relationship. Appendices include an English translation of a vita of St. Ursus (BHL 8453). The dissertation as a whole reconstructs the places and material culture of medieval Aosta to convey the complexities of religious and institutional life during a time of reform and beyond. / text

No description available.