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A amígdala expandida central (EAc) inclui os núcleos central da amígdala (CeA), intersticial lateral da estria terminal (BSTl), intersticial do ramo posterior da comissura anterior (IPAC) e amígdala expandida sublenticular (SLEA). A EAc e a concha do acumbens possuem densa inervação dopaminérgica, implicada em processos motivacionais, e cuja origem foi estudada com a técnica de dupla marcação celular, combinando-se imunofluorescência para o traçador retrógrado Fluoro-Gold e para a tirosina hidroxilase. Nossos resultados indicam que a inervação dopaminérgica do CeA e BSTl é semelhante, se originando em igual proporção da área tegmental ventral (A10) e do núcleo dorsal da rafe/substância cinzenta periaquedutal (A10dc). A inervação dopaminérgica da SLEA, IPAC e concha do acumbens se origina principalmente do grupo A10. Com um anticorpo específico para dopamina vimos que parte da projeção do A10dc para o CeA é de fato dopaminérgica. Os grupos dopaminérgicos diencefálicos não inervam a EAc e a concha do acumbens. / The central extended amygdala (EAc) includes the central amygdaloid nucleus (CeA), lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTl), interstitial nucleus of the posterior limb of the anterior commissure (IPAC) and sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEA). The dopaminergic innervation of the EAc and nucleus accumbens shell is functionally related to motivational processes. Its origin was studied by combining immunofluorescence to tyrosine hydroxylase and Fluoro-Gold, used as retrograde tracer. Our results show that dopaminergic fibers to the CeA and BSTl derive in equal proportion from neurons in ventral tegmental area (A10) and in dorsal raphe nucleus/periaqueductal gray (A10dc). Dopaminergic inputs to SLEA, IPAC and accumbens shell arise mainly from A10 neurons. Using a dopamine antibody, we confirmed that A10dc projections to CeA are in part dopaminergic. Futhermore, the present data indicate that the diencephalic dopaminergic groups do not project to EAc and accumbens shell.

A fundamental question in the neurobiological study of drug addiction concerns the mechanisms mediating the motivational effects of chronic drug withdrawal. According to one theory, drugs of abuse activate opposing motivational processes after both acute and chronic drug use. The negative experience of withdrawal is the opponent process of chronic drug use that drives relapse to drug-seeking and -taking, making the identification of the neurobiological substrates mediating withdrawal an issue of central importance in addiction research. In this thesis, I identify the involvement of the neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the opponent motivational a- and b-processes occurring after acute and chronic nicotine administration. I report that acute nicotine stimulates an initial aversive a-process followed by a rewarding opponent b-process, and chronic nicotine stimulates a rewarding a-process followed by an aversive opponent b-process (withdrawal). These responses can be modeled using a place conditioning paradigm. I demonstrate that the acute nicotine a-process is mediated by phasic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-1 (D1R) but not by tonic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-2 (D2R) or CRF activity, and the opponent b-process is neither DA- nor CRF-mediated. I also demonstrate that the chronic nicotine a-process is DA- but not CRF-mediated, and that withdrawal from chronic nicotine (the b-process) decreases tonic but not phasic DA activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), an effect that is D2R- but not D1R-mediated. I show that a specific pattern of signaling at D1Rs and D2Rs mediates the motivational responses to acute nicotine and chronic nicotine withdrawal, respectively, by demonstrating that both increasing or decreasing signaling at these receptors prevents the expression of the conditioned motivational response. Furthermore, I report that the induction of nicotine dependence increases CRF mRNA in VTA DA neurons, and that blocking either the upregulation of CRF mRNA or the activation of VTA CRF receptors prevents the anxiogenic and aversive motivational responses to withdrawal from chronic nicotine. The results described in this thesis provide novel evidence of a VTA DA/CRF system, and demonstrate that both CRF and a specific pattern of tonic DA activity in the VTA are necessary for the aversive motivational experience of nicotine withdrawal.

A major challenge in the field of neuroscience is to link behavior with specific neuronal circuitries and cellular events. One way of facing this challenge is to identify unique cellular markers and thus have the ability to, through various mouse genetics tools, mimic, manipulate and control various aspects of neuronal activity to decipher their correlation to behavior. The Vesicular Glutamate Transporter 2 (VGLUT2) packages glutamate into presynaptic vesicles for axonal terminal release. In this thesis, VGLUT2 was used to specifically target cell populations within the basal ganglia of mice with the purpose of investigating its connectivity, function and involvement in behavior. The motor and limbic loops of the basal ganglia are important for processing of voluntary movement and emotions. During such physiological events, dopamine plays a central role in modulating the activity of these systems. The brain reward system is mainly formed by dopamine projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the ventral striatum. Certain dopamine neurons within the VTA exhibit the ability to co-release dopamine and glutamate. In paper I, glutamate and dopamine co-release was targeted and our results demonstrate that the absence of VGLUT2 in dopamine neurons leads to perturbations of reward consumption and reward-associated memory, probably due to reduced DA release observed in the striatum as detected by in vivo chronoamperometry. In papers II and IV, VGLUT2 in a specific subpopulation within the subthalamic nucleus (STN) was identified and targeted. Based on the described role of the STN in movement control, we hypothesized that the mice would be hyperlocomotive. As shown in paper II, this was indeed the case. In paper IV, a putative reward-related phenotype was approached and we could show reduced operant-self administration of sugar and altered dopamine release levels suggesting a role for the STN in reward processes. In paper III, we investigated and identified age- and sex-dimorphisms in dopamine kinetics in the dorsal striatum of one of the most commonly used mouse lines worldwide, the C57/Bl6J. Our results point to the importance of taking these dimorphisms into account when utilizing the C57/Bl6J strain as model for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders.

A fundamental question in the neurobiological study of drug addiction concerns the mechanisms mediating the motivational effects of chronic drug withdrawal. According to one theory, drugs of abuse activate opposing motivational processes after both acute and chronic drug use. The negative experience of withdrawal is the opponent process of chronic drug use that drives relapse to drug-seeking and -taking, making the identification of the neurobiological substrates mediating withdrawal an issue of central importance in addiction research. In this thesis, I identify the involvement of the neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the opponent motivational a- and b-processes occurring after acute and chronic nicotine administration. I report that acute nicotine stimulates an initial aversive a-process followed by a rewarding opponent b-process, and chronic nicotine stimulates a rewarding a-process followed by an aversive opponent b-process (withdrawal). These responses can be modeled using a place conditioning paradigm. I demonstrate that the acute nicotine a-process is mediated by phasic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-1 (D1R) but not by tonic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-2 (D2R) or CRF activity, and the opponent b-process is neither DA- nor CRF-mediated. I also demonstrate that the chronic nicotine a-process is DA- but not CRF-mediated, and that withdrawal from chronic nicotine (the b-process) decreases tonic but not phasic DA activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), an effect that is D2R- but not D1R-mediated. I show that a specific pattern of signaling at D1Rs and D2Rs mediates the motivational responses to acute nicotine and chronic nicotine withdrawal, respectively, by demonstrating that both increasing or decreasing signaling at these receptors prevents the expression of the conditioned motivational response. Furthermore, I report that the induction of nicotine dependence increases CRF mRNA in VTA DA neurons, and that blocking either the upregulation of CRF mRNA or the activation of VTA CRF receptors prevents the anxiogenic and aversive motivational responses to withdrawal from chronic nicotine. The results described in this thesis provide novel evidence of a VTA DA/CRF system, and demonstrate that both CRF and a specific pattern of tonic DA activity in the VTA are necessary for the aversive motivational experience of nicotine withdrawal.

A amígdala expandida central (EAc) inclui os núcleos central da amígdala (CeA), intersticial lateral da estria terminal (BSTl), intersticial do ramo posterior da comissura anterior (IPAC) e amígdala expandida sublenticular (SLEA). A EAc e a concha do acumbens possuem densa inervação dopaminérgica, implicada em processos motivacionais, e cuja origem foi estudada com a técnica de dupla marcação celular, combinando-se imunofluorescência para o traçador retrógrado Fluoro-Gold e para a tirosina hidroxilase. Nossos resultados indicam que a inervação dopaminérgica do CeA e BSTl é semelhante, se originando em igual proporção da área tegmental ventral (A10) e do núcleo dorsal da rafe/substância cinzenta periaquedutal (A10dc). A inervação dopaminérgica da SLEA, IPAC e concha do acumbens se origina principalmente do grupo A10. Com um anticorpo específico para dopamina vimos que parte da projeção do A10dc para o CeA é de fato dopaminérgica. Os grupos dopaminérgicos diencefálicos não inervam a EAc e a concha do acumbens. / The central extended amygdala (EAc) includes the central amygdaloid nucleus (CeA), lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTl), interstitial nucleus of the posterior limb of the anterior commissure (IPAC) and sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEA). The dopaminergic innervation of the EAc and nucleus accumbens shell is functionally related to motivational processes. Its origin was studied by combining immunofluorescence to tyrosine hydroxylase and Fluoro-Gold, used as retrograde tracer. Our results show that dopaminergic fibers to the CeA and BSTl derive in equal proportion from neurons in ventral tegmental area (A10) and in dorsal raphe nucleus/periaqueductal gray (A10dc). Dopaminergic inputs to SLEA, IPAC and accumbens shell arise mainly from A10 neurons. Using a dopamine antibody, we confirmed that A10dc projections to CeA are in part dopaminergic. Futhermore, the present data indicate that the diencephalic dopaminergic groups do not project to EAc and accumbens shell.

Les neurones dopaminergiques de la substance noire (SNc) sont les plus vulnérables à la dégénérescence dans la maladie de Parkinson et ses modèles animaux. Suite à des travaux antérieurs et à des résultats préliminaires du laboratoire Trudeau, notre hypothèse actuelle suggère que la très grande taille de l'arborisation axonale des neurones de la SNc soit un facteur clé à l'origine de leur vulnérabilité, puisque cet état devrait être associé à un taux élevé de phosphorylation oxydative et de production de radicaux libres. En accord avec cette hypothèse, les autres populations dopaminergiques, dotées d'arborisations de moindre taille, résistent mieux aux lésions expérimentales et à la maladie chez l'humain. L'objectif du présent projet était de développer un modèle murin dans lequel les neurones de la SNc présentent une taille d'arborisation axonale plus grande, se rapprochant davantage de celle observée chez l'humain et en reproduisant la vulnérabilité, ce qui pourrait représenter une percée importante dans l'identification de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques. Basée sur le bourgeonnement axonal compensatoire des neurones dopaminergiques suite à des lésions partielles, la méthode utilisée fut l'injection unilatérale intranigrale de la toxine 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) à quelques jours de vie (P5), en visant l'élimination de 50% des neurones de la SNc. Un immunomarquage contre la tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), enzyme de synthèse de la dopamine, ainsi qu'une quantification du signal TH dans le striatum et des comptes neuronaux stéréologiques ont permis de quantifier la lésion partielle et de mettre en évidence la présence d'une croissance axonale compensatoire des neurones dopaminergiques survivants, à 10 et 90 jours post-lésion, suggérant une compensation précoce. Afin de mettre en évidence l'origine du bourgeonnement axonal, nous avons injecté un vecteur viral de type AAV encodant une protéine fluorescente (EYFP) dans la SNc ou la VTA des animaux adultes. Nos résultats confirment la présence de neurones nigrostriés à plus grande arborisation suivant une lésion unilatérale précoce à la 6-OHDA, dont la vulnérabilité accrue pourra être évaluée dans des expériences à venir par des protocoles lésionnels au MPTP, une toxine permettant de modéliser la maladie de Parkinson chez la souris. / Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra (SNc) are amongst the most vulnerable to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease and its animal models. According to previous work and preliminary results in our laboratory, our present hypothesis postulates that the large axonal arborisation size of SNc neurons is a key driving factor in their vulnerability, since this characteristic is associated with increased oxidative phosphorylation levels and free radicals production. In agreement with this hypothesis, other dopaminergic populations with smaller axonal arbors better resist to experimental lesions and to the disease process in humans. The current project aims to develop a mouse model in which SNc neurons present an axonal arborisation of increased size, closer to what is encountered in humans, thus reproducing their vulnerability, which could represent an important breakthrough in the identification of new therapeutic approaches. Based on compensatory axonal sprouting of dopaminergic neurons following partial lesions, the method used was the unilateral intranigral injection of the toxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) at an early age (P5), to induce the loss of approximately 50% of SNc neurons. Immunostaining against tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), an enzyme required for the synthesis of dopamine, TH signal quantification in the striatum and stereological counting of neurons allowed for the quantification of the partial lesion and demonstrated compensatory axonal sprouting at 10 and 90 days post-lesion, with our results suggesting an early compensation. To better characterize the origin of axonal sprouting, we injected an AAV viral vector encoding a fluorescent protein (EYFP) in either the SNc or the VTA of adult animals. Our results confirm the presence of nigrostriatal neurons with increased arborisation sizes following early unilateral lesion using 6-OHDA, whose increased vulnerability will be evaluated in future experiments through lesion protocols using MPTP, a toxin used to model Parkinson's disease in mice.

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La prise volontaire de nicotine augmente l'excitabilité de la voie ILCx-BNST, entraînant une hyperactivité des neurones DA de l’ATV. Dans une première partie, l'objectif était d’étudier les neuroadaptations de la voie ILCx-BNST induites par l'auto-administration intraveineuse (AAIV) de nicotine. Les récepteurs cannabinoides CB1 contrôlent les propriétés renforçantes de la nicotine. Par conséquent, nous avons examiné le rôle des récepteurs CB1 du BNST. Nous montrons que l'acquisition de l’AAIV de nicotine est associée à une facilitation persistante de l'induction d’une potentialisation à long terme (LTP) CB1-dépendantes des synapses ILCx-BNST. La stimulation électrique du ILCx favorise également la persistance du comportement de recherche de nicotine pendant les périodes où la drogue n'est pas disponible. En outre, en utilisant la pharmacologie intra-BNST, nous montrons que la stimulation des récepteurs CB1 du BNST au cours de l’acquisition de lAAIV augmente la sensibilité aux stimuli associés à la nicotine. L’idée qu’il existe un appétit incontrôlable pour les aliments palatables, en dépit des conséquences négatives. Dans une seconde partie, notre projet a porté sur le rôle des neurones dopaminergiques (DA) de l’ATV dans la perception d’un stimulus aversif chez l’animal exposé au sucrose. Nos résultats indiquent que le sucrose augmente l'activité spontanée des neurones DA de la VTA. En outre, si un choc électrique provoque une inhibition presque complète de l'activité de VTA neurones DA chez les rats témoins, le sucrose perturbe la signalisation d'un stimulus aversif, indépendamment de l’état calorique du rat. / Learning mechanisms associated with active responding for nicotine enhanced the excitability of the ILCx-BNST pathway. The objective of this project was to better understand the involvement of the ILCx-BNST pathway in nicotine self-administration. Since the endocannabinoid system controls nicotine reinforcement and nicotine-induced synaptic modifications, we examined the role of CB1 receptors in the BNST. We showed that acquisition of nicotine IVSA was associated with a persistent facilitation of LTP induction at ILCx-BNST synapses. Behaviorally, electrical stimulation temporarily increased excessive responding to nicotine when nicotine was not available. Moreover, using intra-BNST pharmacology, we revealed that stimulation of BNST CB1 receptors enhanced sensitivity to nicotine-paired cue. In contrast, after a prolonged history of nicotine intake, it blocked drug-seeking in a reinstatement model of relapse. Drug addiction is partly due to the inability to stop using despite negative consequences. The hypothesis that palatable food induces similar uncontrolled consumption is becoming more widespread. As drug addiction is known to increases activity of VTA DA neurons, we aimed to examine whether exposure to sucrose would induce similar neuronal modifications and impair the capacity to respond to an aversive stimulus. We found that sucrose enhanced spontaneous activity of DA VTA neurons. In addition, while a footshock caused a nearly complete inhibition of activity of VTA DA neurons in control rats, sucrose disrupted signaling of an aversive stimulus. These modifications were independent from the caloric state of the rats.