The impacts of exogenous cannabinoids, such as the chemical constituents of Cannabis sativa like cannabidiol (CBD), on brain regions having a modest number of cannabinoid receptors, for example, the ventromedial hypothalamus, are not yet surely knew. A few researches have shown evidence that ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) neurons play a role in modulating innate fear-induced behavioural reactions in rodents submitted to experimental models of panic attack, for example those based on prey versus wild snake confrontation paradigm. The panic attack-like state was also potentially induced in laboratory animals by N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), an excitatory amino acid, which stimulates neurons that organize defensive behavioural reactions in the central nervous system. Despite the fact that CB1 receptor-mediated endocannabinoid signaling mechanism underlies the antiaversive effect of exogenous anandamide in medial hypothalamus, there is still a lack of morphological evidence to support the distribution of CB1 receptors in the VMH. Henceforth, this study was designed to explore the specific pattern of distribution of the CB1 receptors in the VMH and, subsequently, the implication of these receptors in the endocannabinoidmodulated defensive behavioural responses followed by fear-induced antinociception evoked by NMDA microinjected in the VMH. A stainless steel guide-cannula was embedded in the rodent\'s brain coordinated towards VMH by means of stareotaxic surgery. Three different doses of cannabidiol (CBD) were microinjected in the VMH. The most effective dose was used after the pretreatment with the CB1 receptor-antagonist AM251, followed by NMDA microinjection in the VMH. The outcomes demonstrated that the defensive behavioural responses evoked in response to intra-VMH administration of NMDA (6 nmol) were decreased by intra-hypothalamic microinjections of CBD at the highest dose (100 nmol).These effects, however, were blocked by the administration of the CB1 receptor-antagonist AM251 (100 pmol) in the VMH. In addition, the fear-induced antinociception elicited by VMH chemical stimulation diminished after the VMH treatment with CBD, an effect reversed by the intra-diencephalic pretreatment with AM251. These findings suggested that CBD causes panicolytic-like effects when administered in the VMH, and that antiaversive effect recruits the CB1 receptor-endocannabinoid signaling mechanism in VMH. / O papel dos canabinoides exógenos nas regiões do cérebro com um número modesto de receptores cannabinoides, por exemplo, o hipotálamo ventromedial, ainda não está plenamente esclarecido. Algumas pesquisas de nosso grupo, não obstante, mostraram o hipotálamo ventromedial (HVM) exerce modulação de reações comportamentais provocadas pelo medo inato em animais submetidos a um modelo de ataques de pânico. Crises de pânico foram induzidas em animais de laboratório por N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA), um aminoácido excitatório que, ao ser microinjetado em estruturas do sistema encefálico de aversão, estimula reações comportamentais defensivas no sistema nervoso central que mimetizam as respostas defensivas eliciadas por roedores confrontados com serpentes. Apesar do mecanismo de sinalização endocanabinoide mediado pelos receptores CB1 desempenhar um papel na modulação da neurotransmissão excitadora e inibitória no SNC, ainda há escassez de evidências morfológicas que embasem a distribuição dos receptores CB1 no HVM. Por conseguinte, este estudo foi idealizado para explorar a forma específica de distribuição dos receptores CB1 no HVM e, posteriormente, estudar a implicação desses receptores na modulação de respostas comportamentais defensivas, seguidas por antinocicepção induzida pelo medo, moduladas por endocanabinoides e evocadas por microinjetação de NMDA no HVM. Uma cânula-guia feita de aço inoxidável foi implantada no cérebro do roedor, e direcionada para o HVM por meio de cirurgia estareotóxica. Três diferentes doses de cannabidiol (CBD) foram microinjetadas no HVM. A dosagem mais eficaz foi utilizada após o pré-tratamento do hipotálamo medial com um antagonista do receptor CB1, o AM251, seguido da microinjeção NMDA no HVM. Os resultados demonstraram que as respostascomportamentais defensivas evocadas em resposta à administração intra-HVM de NMDA (6 nmol) foram diminuídas por microinjeções intra-hipotalâmicas de CBD na dose mais alta (100 nmol). Estes efeitos, no entanto, foram atenuados pela administração do antagonista do receptor CB1, AM251, na dose de 100 pmol no HVM. Além disso, a antinocicepção induzida pelo medo foi atenuada pela administração intra-diencefálica de CBA, o que foi revertido pelo pré-tratamenot do HVM com AM251. Esses dados sugerem que o CBD causa efeitos panicolíticos, quando administrado no HVM, envolvendo o mecanismo de sinalização do receptor CB1-endocannabinoide.

The ability to take effective decisions is fundamental for successful environmental adaptation and survival. In this thesis, I investigated situations in which decisions appear irrational, at least from certain standpoints. I conducted a behavioural decision-making experiment in two groups of macaques: controls and a group with ventromedial prefrontal cortex/medial orbitofrontal cortex (vmPFC/ mOFC) lesions. Some choices lead to compound outcomes composed of different constituent parts. Control macaques' decisions suggested their estimates of the value of the compound were biased away from the sum of the values of the constituents and towards their mean. Lesions of vmPFC/mOFC diminished the size of the effect so that macaques in some ways appeared to make more rational decisions. Based on the results of this experiment I devised a similar Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) paradigm with the control animals. This demonstrated strong vmPFC/mOFC activity when similar decisions were made and suggested a value comparison process. In addition, I investigated the role of dopamine in learning using Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry (FSCV), while rats performed a simple decision-making task. Theories about the role of dopamine in learning have focused on the possibility that it codes scalar reward value prediction errors. Less consideration has been given to the possibility that dopamine might reflect prediction errors about reward identities regardless of value. I measured dopamine in the nucleus accumbens when unexpected changes in reward value or identity occurred while rats executed a two-choice two-reward instrumental task. Dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens reflected reward value prediction errors. In addition, however, they also reflected some information about reward identity under some circumstances. Further investigation suggested that this might be due to differences in the nutritional value of different reward types that did not have clear measurable impacts of behaviour in the tasks that I used.

Executive functioning is a multidimensional concept encompassing higher-order adaptive abilities, such as judgment, decision-making, self-monitoring, planning, and emotional regulation. Disruption in executive functioning often results in devastating impairments in vitally-important areas of life, such as one's ability to hold employment and maintain social relationships. Executive functions have been associated primarily with the prefrontal cortex. However, the nature and degree of the association between frontal lobe damage and performance on executive functioning tests remains controversial. Research suggests that the association may vary based on the specific location of damage within the prefrontal cortex, as well as the used measure of executive functioning. Few investigations have systematically addressed these variables. The current study employed the lesion method to investigate the relationship between performance on a battery of executive functioning tests and damage to specific regions of the prefrontal cortex. Three groups of participants with lesions in one of the locations of interest [ventromedial prefrontal (VMPC, n = 14), dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPC, n = 14), and non-frontal (n = 18)] were administered the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS, 2001), a comprehensive battery of executive functioning tests. Results revealed no statistically-significant differences between group performances on the D-KEFS primary measures. However, a qualitative analysis of the results revealed several meaningful group differences. It appears that some relationship exists between frontal lobe damage, particularly in the DLPC, and decreased performance on several executive functioning tests but further research overcoming the methodological limitations of most existing literature on this topic is needed to clearly resolve this issue.

Our senses are constantly bombarded with information. How does the brain integrate such a variety of inputs to generate appropriate behaviours? Innate defensive behaviours are a good model to address this question. They are essential for animal survival and the brain circuits that control them are highly conserved across species. Moreover, the sensory inputs and behavioural outputs can be well defined and reliably reproduced in the lab. This allows us to study function of the individual components of the circuit controlling these behaviours. Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is a key brain region for controlling responses to predators; it has been shown that inactivating the VMH can reduce defensive behaviours. Interestingly, activating the VMH output neurons (SF1+ cells) can produce a variety of different behaviours, from immobility to escape, depending on the intensity of activation. During my PhD I used a variety of approaches to address the question of the function of the VMH in control of defensive behaviours. At first I hypothesised that the VMH might act as a centre responsible for choosing an appropriate behavioural response according to the stimulus. I set to investigate how different activation levels of SF1+ neurons can produce such different behavioural outputs, and how this activity is modulated in vivo in response to predator stimuli. I began the project by quantifying mouse defensive behaviours in response to olfactory and auditory predator cues, as well as to the optogenetic activation of SF1+ neurons. I then questioned whether there was heterogeneity within the population of SF1+ neurons, which could explain their ability to trigger different behaviours. I performed patch clamp recordings from acute brain slices and conducted a study of the electrophysiological properties of SF1+ neurons. I next investigated how SF1+ neurons integrate excitatory inputs from the medial amygdala, a region which receives olfactory inputs from the accessory olfactory bulb. By combining optogenetics with slice electrophysiology and behavioural assessment, I described the physiology and relevance of this connection. Finally, I investigated in vivo activity in the VMH in response to predator cues by performing calcium imaging of the VMH neurons in freely moving mice. By presenting different sensory stimuli, I addressed the question of heterogeneity of the input pattern to the VMH neurons and the relationship between the VMH activity and the behavioural output. Taken all together, the results of this project have led to a hypothesis whereby the function of the VMH is to facilitate rather than directly control the choice of an appropriate behavioural response.

Les mécanismes cérébraux engagés dans la prise de décision sont loin d’être compris. Ils peuvent cependant être décomposés en plusieurs étapes : il s’agit premièrement d’assigner une « valeur » aux options considérées, c’est-à-dire une quantification subjective du désir d’obtenir chacune d’entre elles. Ensuite, il faut les comparer afin d’être capable de sélectionner celle qui a la plus grande valeur. L’assignation d’une valeur à un objet semble être effectuée par un réseau cérébral qui recoupe le réseau de la récompense identifié chez l’animal et il a été logiquement nommé le « système cérébral des valeurs ». Le travail réalisé dans cette thèse s’intéresse à la notion de valeur et aux moyens d’y avoir accès, aux propriétés du réseau cérébral d’évaluation et à son implication dans le processus de décision. La première étude a montré que les moyens utilisés pour mesurer les valeurs pouvaient être considérés comme équivalents. La deuxième étude, réalisée sur des données d’intra-électroencéphalographie humaine, a permis d’étudier la dynamique neurale du réseau cérébral d’évaluation, mais aussi d’étudier ses propriétés. La dernière expérience, faite en IRMf propose une solution générale sur l’implémentation neurale du processus de décision et révèle des mécanismes sources de biais dans le comportement jusqu’ici inexplorés. Les résultats de ces études considérés dans leur ensemble mettent en lumière certains mécanismes cognitifs de la prise de décision en explorant les propriétés neurales d’assignation de valeurs mais également en proposant un nouveau cadre d’implémentation de la décision elle-même. / Neural processes engaged in decision-making remain unclear. A decomposition of these processes might help us to understand the involved mechanisms. Indeed, first we need to assign what we will call a ‘subjective value’ to each option – i.e. the quantification of how much we like each of these options. Then, we need to compare those values to finally being able to select one of them. Assigning a value seems to be the function of an interesting brain network which overlaps the reward circuitry identified in animal studies – and which is called the Brain Valuation System (BVS). In the first study of this PhD thesis, we investigated and compared three behavioral ways to have an access to these ‘subjective values’. We found that subjective values were relatively robust to the way they were elicited. In the second study, we investigated the specific properties of the Brain Valuation System established through fMRI in humans in a large dataset of intra-EEG recordings in epileptic patients. Finally, in the last study we investigated how this brain network was involved during a binary choice in fMRI. Altogether, our findings shed light on the distinct cognitive mechanisms underlying value-based decision-making i) by exploring the neural properties of value assignment and ii) by proposing a general solution to the neural implementation of the comparison between option values. We believe this demonstration points to hidden default policies as sources of bias in choices.

Deficient self-control leads to shortsighted decisions and incurs severe personal and societal costs. Although neuroimaging has advanced our understanding of neural mechanisms underlying self-control, the ecological validity of laboratory tasks used to assess self-control remains largely unknown. To increase ecological validity and to test a specific hypothesis about the mechanisms underlying real-life self-control, we combined functional MRI during valuebased decision-making with smartphone-based assessment of real-life self-control in a large community sample (N = 194). Results showed that an increased propensity to make shortsighted decisions and commit self-control failures, both in the laboratory task as well as during real-life conflicts, was associated with a reduced modulation of neural value signals in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in response to anticipated long-term consequences. These results constitute the first evidence that neural mechanisms mediating anticipations of future consequences not only account for self-control in laboratory tasks but also predict real-life self-control, thereby bridging the gap between laboratory research and real-life behavior.

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Choisir entre l'action ou l'inaction est peut-être le type de décision le plus critique auquel un animal peut faire face. Une formalisation simple de ces choix consiste à évaluer les bénéfices attendus (nourriture, argent par exemple) ainsi que les coûts (punitions, pertes de temps ou d'argent) associés à chaque action et d'optimiser le rapport entre récompenses reçues et coûts assumés. Notre motivation à s'engager dans une action donnée dépend donc de la valeur de ce rapport. Dans le domaine de l'économie comportementale, l’optimisation de ce rapport bénéfices/coûts constitue le principe fondamental qui régule et explique le comportement des individus. Dans mes travaux de thèse, j'ai réalisé une implémentation de ces concepts venant de l'économie comportementale en utilisant une forme expérimentalement quantifiable de coûts: l'effort physique. Dans notre vie de tous les jours, si l'on nous demande de choisir entre deux options rapportant les même bénéfices mais demandant différents efforts (par exemple, travailler 3 ou 7 jours par semaine pour le même salaire), nous choisissons habituellement l'option qui nécessite la plus petite dépense d'énergie, en optant donc pour le moindre effort. Néanmoins, l'effort physique a été beaucoup moins étudié en comparaison à d'autres formes de coûts comme le fait de différer la récompense ou d'en augmenter l'incertitude. Le présent travail de recherche a donc pour but de mettre en lumière les bases neurales de la balance récompense / effort dans la prise de décision. Comprendre comment l'effort affecte la dévaluation des potentielles récompenses a un intérêt particulier pour la prise de décisions économiques mais aussi pour la clinique, étant donné que la diminution de la capacité à accepter d'avoir à exercer un effort est un symptôme-clé de nombreuses pathologies comme l'apathie ou la dépression. Nous faisons l’hypothèse que de tels désordres pourraient résulter de deux différents processus comportementaux: (a) une diminution de la sensibilité aux bénéfices futurs et/ou (b) une sensibilité excessive aux coûts potentiels. Ainsi, lorsqu'interrogés sur les raisons pour lesquelles ils ne veulent pas aller au cinéma regarder un film qu'ils apprécient, les patients apathiques peuvent déclarer que (a) le film n'est pas assez bon (soit une plus faible réponse à la valeur attendue), (b) le cinéma est trop loin (soit une plus forte sensibilité à l'effort anticipé). Afin de tester ces hypothèses, nous avons enregistré l'activité de neurones chez le singe pendant des tâches comportementales. Nous avons trouvé que d'une part, la dopamine encode la valeur de l'action future et oriente le comportement vers l'option demandant le moindre effort. D'autre part, la noradrénaline permet à l'individu de faire face à l'effort à venir en réduisant la sensibilité à l'anticipation de l'effort. En utilisant une approche pharmacologique, nous avons démontré que lorsque le niveau de noradrénaline est augmenté, les singes exercent d'avantage d'effort. En outre, nous avons montré que les potentiels locaux de champ dans le cortex pré-frontal ventro-médian, enregistrés dans une tâche comportementale identique, sont modulés par la valeur attendue et prédisent le choix du singe. En résumé, ce travail permet de départager en partie les circuits neuronaux impliqués dans le calcul de la balance récompense / effort, principalement encodée par les neurones dopaminergiques et dans les potentiels locaux de champ au niveau du cortex pré-frontal ventro-médian. Enfin, ce travail souligne le rôle de la noradrénaline dans la mobilisation de l'énergie d'un individu afin de faire face au défi que représente l'effort physique. / There is perhaps no more critical factor for the behaviour of an animal than the way it chooses between action and inaction. A simple way to formalise such choices is to evaluate the predicted benefit (e.g. food, money) and costs (e.g. punishments, losses, delays) associated with each action and optimise the rates at which rewards are received and costs avoided. Our motivation to perform a given action depends upon such value ratio. In the current behavioural economics literature, the optimisation of the benefits/costs ratio stands as the fundamental principle that regulates and explains agents’ behaviour. In my Ph.D. studies, I implement a realistic model of such concepts from behavioural economics by using an empirical type of cost: physical effort. In our everyday life, if we are asked to choose between two options that imply the same reward but different efforts (e.g., working 3 or 7 days per week for the same salary), we usually opt for the alternative that requires the slightest energy expenditure, thus the least effort. However, physical effort has been far less studied compared to other decision costs such as delay or uncertainty. The present Ph.D. work aims at highlighting the neuronal bases of such reward/effort tradeoff. Understanding how effort cost affects the discounting of potential rewards has a clear significance for economic decisions and clinics, since the reduced willingness to exert effort is a key signature of several clinical disorders such as apathy and depression We suggest that disorders such as apathy could result from two different behavioural processes: (a) a decreased responsiveness to future benefits and/or (b) an excessive sensitivity to potential costs. For instance, when asked why they would not go see a movie they like, patients may say that (a) the movie is not good enough (i.e. low responsiveness to expected value) or that (b) the theatre is too far away (i.e. high sensitivity to anticipated effort). To test our hypothesis, we combined behavioural tasks and pharmacological approach with neuron recordings in monkeys, targeting specifically two majors actors of the rewarding and effort system, dopamine and noradrenaline. We found that dopamine and noradrenaline have distinct but complementary roles. On the one hand, dopamine tracks the reward value of future outcomes and orient the behaviour towards the least effortful options. On the other hand, noradrenaline enables subjects to face the effort at hand, reducing the sensitivity to anticipated effort. Using a pharmacological approach, we found that, when we increase noradrenaline, monkeys exerted significantly more effort. Moreover, we have found that local field potentials in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex recorded in the same task encode the expected value and predict action selection. In summary, this Ph.D. work allows to disentangle some of the neuronal circuits implicated in the computation of the reward/effort tradeoff, mainly encoded by dopaminergic neurons and in the local field potential of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. On the other hand, this work highlights the role of noradrenaline in the energization of behaviour to face the challenge represented by the physical effort.

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