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This ethnography is writing about the popular resistance of villagers in postreform China. It focuses on the political discourse of villagers who imagine, create and transmit it in everyday life. When they carry out resistance to the state, they speak about how they view their government, what the ideal government-villager relationship is, what the principle of justice and equity is, as well as what their relations with their family, kin and village are, and how they view the good life. In their everyday practice, the evidence shows that there is an elaborate and pervasive principle of social contract or reciprocity, which underlies everyday social relationships. This principle is not only applied to person to person (e.g. villager and villager, villagers and cadres), it is also extended to the relationship between state and villagers. But the findings also tell that this principle is not an external norm/rule or institution/system which is static and unchangeable. It is transformed and reproduced by the villagers in everyday practices. The villagers strategically defined the meaning of zeren in terms of social contract for their own interest. When the state or the cadres violate their principle of zeren, villagers carry out resistance. In Ku Village, villagers' resistance is always in everyday form in order to avoid open confrontation and direct challenge to the state, because such open and organized activities are still dangerous and will probably be met with aimed force and bloodshed in socialist China. In their resistance, they are capable of formulating the rationale for their action discursively via defining and redefining the zeren of the government and their relationship with the state. They draw upon the memory and a rich variety of information from different sources for constructing their models of "good government" and "good cadre", with which they judge the government and local cadres, and then justify their resistance to the state policies. In post-reform China, collecting taxes, imposing fees and enforcing birth control have become the main arenas of conflict between state and villagers. The village cadres are always situated in a dilemma, which formulates an important characteristic of Chinese local politics. On the one hand, they have to implement the state policy; on the other hand, they do not want to hurt the personal relationship with the villagers because they are also bound by the principle of social reciprocity. So normally, they collude with the villagers and keep "one eye opened and one eye closed". At the specific historical moment, however, some village cadres collude with the state and do things against the interest of the villagers.

The history of Mozambique has been punctuated by episodes of warfare and natural calamities. This study looks at the history of the civil war that affected Mozambique from 1976 to 1992 beyond the framework of national state and global politics. It attempts to make the voices of villagers who suffered the hardship of war more audible through the exploration of histories of life. It offers a more complex discussion of social relationships and social change during the war by looking at villagers and their environments beyond victimization narratives. It contends that apart from being the major targets of the war, villagers and their environments had agency in the conflict. It argues that environmental factors influenced the course of war and exacerbated the harmful effects of war on local people and natural resources. It observes that the civil war affected an agrarian society which was particularly dependent on a rich and diverse yet disrupted ecosystem therefore, studying the civil war with focus on the environmental context shows the true cost of warfare, and how it was experienced by rural society. It shows that humans and wildlife were in times of peace interconnected in symbiotic relationship which included episodes of cooperation and conflict. Elephants, hippos, monkeys, bush pigs, and birds invaded farms in search of food. Humans relied on wild animals and plants to improve their diet and to mitigate the impact of drought and disease. These symbiotic relationships were heavily disturbed by warfare and drought as villagers were displaced from lands about which they had micro-geographical knowledge to mitigate the effects of recurrent droughts.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第24951号 / 地環博第242号 / 新制||地環||48(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 星野 敏, 准教授 鬼塚 健一郎, 教授 西前 出 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

The main frame of this research is ¡§Economic Modernization¡¨ categorized modernization theory, and the objective of this research is TVEs to analyze the characteristics of Mainland China¡¦s economic modernization. TVEs is a kind of special enterprise style of China. TVEs integrate rural resources, collective ownership, and modern business management into the main power of the development of rural economy. Moreover, also the particularities of TVEs¡¦ system are the emphasis of this research. The members of TVEs which are villagers, local government officers, managers, and party cadres form a kind of special mutual-dependence relationship between rural communities, CPC (Communist Party of China), and governments. Finally, the extending question is economic modernization transiting to political modernization, also China with the different development from western nations.

本論文從「後社會主義中國」發展的框架下以「村民自治」來研究九十年代大陸基層政治參與，從制度層面及非制度層面探討大陸農村村民「政治參與權」發展情況，並分析對大陸未來政治發展可能產生的積極影響及消極影響。制度層面指涉的範圍是在「村民自治」的正式制度規範設計對於人民政治參與權利以及管道上的影響，主要包括「民主選舉」、「民主決策」、「民主管理」、「民主監督」、「村民小組」等等；非制度層面指涉的是包括內外部政治環境、傳統文化、經濟環境、社會環境等因素對人民政治參與的影響。從「村民自治」的制度層面和非制度層面的因素探討中，發現九十年代「村民自治」的政治參與呈現出一種嚴重的不平衡發展狀態。在制度面上，＜組織法＞比＜試行法＞在「四個民主」的機制設計比較進步，但是在選舉的競爭機制改善上成就不是很大；在非制度面上，經濟發展、仲介社團的產生及資訊的進步等因素對於民眾參與的意願有所促進，但是宗族、黨幹部的心態、傳統文化以及政府對傳媒的管制等因素卻使民眾的政治參與受到限制。九十年代大陸基層政治參與情況，由於制度變遷「路徑依賴」的選擇及自我強化的結果，使「後社會主義中國」政治參與的轉型發展，朝著「部份民主化」的方向前進，形成「接近自主型」、「部分自主型」、「被動型」三種不同的「政治參與權」型態。照目前「村民自治」發展情況來看，中共政權朝民主化方向發展是侷限性大於可能性。以漸進、溫和的方式由下而上的推動制度變革、經濟的發展、社會多元化、公民意識及參與政治文化的建立，來作為大陸推動民主化的策略選擇，雖然目前看來成功機會不大，但可作為未來大陸政治轉型之一種轉形發展策略。 / This paper attempts to look into the local political participation in Mainland China during the 1990s. The analysis on the villagers’ self-government under the framework of the post-socialism and the transitional development of Chinese Mainland and the analysis on the villagers’ “political participation powers and rights” from the formal and the informal systems of villagers’ self-government will be used to find the positive and the negative influences on the future of Mainland China’s political development by local self-government political participation. The scope of the formal system of villagers’ self-government includes democratic election, democratic decision-making, democratic management, democratic supervision and villagers’ subcommittee. The scope of the informal system of villagers’ self-government includes the interior and the exterior political environment, traditional culture, economic factor, and social environment. From the gathered data, we find the local political participation on the Mainland China during the 1990s is seriously unbalanced in rural areas of PRC. Because of the effect of path dependence, the transitional path forms three different types of “political participation powers and rights.” From the indications of current local political participation, the democratization of PRC in the near future will be limited. However, the strategy for gradualism reform still can be viewed as one possible path for transitional development of Chinese Mainland.

The thesis is devoted to the topic of Peruvian rural migrants in the capital of Lima and the maintaining their cultural identity through associations focused on folklore. In the first part I will outline the socio-economic reasons for migration and the adaptation issues of migrants in an urban environment. There are also described associations that provide economic as well as psychological support to immigrants. The main part is focused directly on folklore as the basis of identity and folklore associations in Lima. I chose folklore associations from Puno as a representative sample because of their rich cultural activities. I will demonstrate how organizations work, who their members are and what activities they pursue. The conclusion questions the modern musical fusions in Peru and the future of the Andean culture in an urban environment.

Inspired by critiques of controlled elections under “single-party rule,” this dissertation explores the performance, implications and potentials of China’s village elections. It first reviews the most important studies on the progress of China’s grassroots democracy and then analyzes the social-political background of village self-management which to date has been neglected in the academic literature. Based on empirical studies conducted in Sichuan, this dissertation investigates the roles and attitudes of various participatory groups in village elections and in the course of electoral reforms. It also discusses the failure of the existing law to set out fundamental rules for village elections and to effectively guide people’s behavior. Further, this dissertation offers detailed recommendations to improve the existing law in order to guarantee the accessibility, authenticity and competitiveness of village elections. / Graduate / 0398 / 0616 / aloeke@gmail.com

Too often, literature on participation in community development is void of the rationale for the participation of teachers; the roles they may play; factors for and against their participation; and strategies for inviting and sustaining their participation. This study examines what could be done to ensure the participation of rural based teachers in community development activities, by exploring these issues. A qualitative design and purposeful sampling are used. The sample consists of information-rich informants from the following five categories: officials of the Rural District Council, non-governmental organisation workers, rural based school teachers, Village Development Committee Chairpersons, and ordinary community members. Interviewing is used as the major instrument of data collection. The study reveals that rural based teachers should participate in community development activities, since they have a wide knowledge base and transferable skills, and they are part of and trusted by the community. It reveals that rural based teachers' participation is deterred by political factors, lack of supportive policies, attitudes, conservativeness, lack of specialized training, and labour issues. Twenty two roles are identified for rural based teachers in community development activities. Strategies for inviting them to participate are: the use of policy, change of attitudes, use of media campaigns, training, and inclusion of community development in tertiary education in general, and teacher education in particular. Strategies for sustaining their participation emerge as: the use of incentives, free time or days off and holding responsible offices. Sixteen recommendations are finally presented. / DEVELOPMENT STUDIES / MA (DEVELOPMENT STUD)

Too often, literature on participation in community development is void of the rationale for the participation of teachers; the roles they may play; factors for and against their participation; and strategies for inviting and sustaining their participation. This study examines what could be done to ensure the participation of rural based teachers in community development activities, by exploring these issues. A qualitative design and purposeful sampling are used. The sample consists of information-rich informants from the following five categories: officials of the Rural District Council, non-governmental organisation workers, rural based school teachers, Village Development Committee Chairpersons, and ordinary community members. Interviewing is used as the major instrument of data collection. The study reveals that rural based teachers should participate in community development activities, since they have a wide knowledge base and transferable skills, and they are part of and trusted by the community. It reveals that rural based teachers' participation is deterred by political factors, lack of supportive policies, attitudes, conservativeness, lack of specialized training, and labour issues. Twenty two roles are identified for rural based teachers in community development activities. Strategies for inviting them to participate are: the use of policy, change of attitudes, use of media campaigns, training, and inclusion of community development in tertiary education in general, and teacher education in particular. Strategies for sustaining their participation emerge as: the use of incentives, free time or days off and holding responsible offices. Sixteen recommendations are finally presented. / DEVELOPMENT STUDIES / MA (DEVELOPMENT STUD)