This study investigated the role of vocabulary size in assessing learners from various L1 backgrounds and for institutional placement. Participants included native speakers of Spanish, Korean, Japanese, and Mandarin, who took a test that estimated the size of their productive English vocabulary. First, the vocabulary size of students from each language group was compared and the relationship between vocabulary size and institutional placement level was examined. Then, scores were analyzed to determine how cognates and loan words influenced the participants' performance on the vocabulary test. Further, students' vocabulary size scores were correlated with their placement scores that evaluated reading, writing, speaking, listening, and grammar. Finally, the vocabulary size of new students was compared to returning students within the same institutional placement level. Within the same institutional placement levels, speakers of Spanish and Korean had larger English vocabularies than speakers of Japanese and Chinese. It was also found that there is a clear distinction between students at varying institutional placement levels in terms of their vocabulary size. The cognate analysis revealed that students learn cognates faster than non-cognates. The correlation analysis revealed that vocabulary size correlated most with speaking, and listening, followed by grammar, then reading and writing. Finally, the cross-sectional analysis indicated that the vocabulary size of newly placed students was generally larger than that of continuing students.

The present study, a quantitative lexical analysis, examines the extent to which vocabulary size and lexical diversity contribute to writing scores on advanced non-native speakers’ and native speakers’ academic compositions. The data consists of essays composed by 104 adult non-native English learners enrolled in advanced second language writing courses and 68 native speaking university students in a first-year composition course. The lexical diversity of the sample essays is quantified by both the Measure of Textual Lexical Diversity (MTLD) and the voc-D while vocabulary size is measured by CELEX word frequency means, three instruments that are available in the computational linguistics program Coh-Metrix 3.0. Writing scores are provided by three independent raters’ evaluations according to the TOEFL iBT Independent Writing Rubric. Results from a binary logistic regression reveal that lexical diversity has a significantly greater impact on writing score than vocabulary size (p < .01). Nevertheless, a series of MANOVAs indicate that vocabulary size initially facilitates writing scores at the lower proficiency levels, but it is an essay’s lexical diversity that promotes it to the higher score levels. Additional findings from the MANOVAs demonstrate that native speakers’ profiles of lexical diversity and size are significantly different from their non-native peers (p < .001). The lexical profiles also differed significantly among the individual score levels of the TOEFL iBT rubric (p < .05). A final outcome from a Pearson’s product moment correlation analysis shows that iii vocabulary size has only a moderate relationship to lexical diversity, suggesting that variation of mid-range vocabulary may be more important to writing proficiency than the use of more sophisticated terms that occur less frequently in natural language. Implications for practice suggest that it is not enough to simply teach vocabulary words in the L2 composition classroom, but also to guide learners in how to employ these words in a varied manner within their writing. Furthermore, the results of this study indicate that teachers should spend more time on helping students use medium frequency words along with synonyms of a similar frequency rather than teaching students infrequent vocabulary, which may appear to sound more advanced.

This study is a cross-sectional investigation into the relationship among Japanese EFL learners’ vocabulary size, two aspects of depth of vocabulary knowledge, polysemy and collocational knowledge, and automaticity of word recognition specified as orthographic decoding speed and lexical meaning access speed, and the roles these aspects of lexical knowledge play in general academic reading comprehension as well as in each of five Reading Comprehension item types—Main Idea, Stated Details, Paraphrased Details, Guessing Vocabulary from Context, and Making Inferences. The participants (N = 166) were first- and second-year, non-English majors at a four-year, co-educational university in western Japan. The participants were gathered from seven intact classes, where they focused on developing reading skills for TOEIC. Data were obtained from six major instruments: the Reading Comprehension Test, the Vocabulary Size Measure, the Revised Word Associates Polysemy Test, the Revised Word Associates Collocation Test, the Lexical Decision Task, and the Antonym Semantic Decision Task. The first four tests were administered with pencil and paper over two months, and the latter two tests were administered during the summer vacation with individual participants using computer software that produced reaction time data. Before conducting the quantitative analyses, the paper and pencil based tests were analyzed using the Rasch dichotomous model to examine the validity and reliability of the instruments and to transform the raw scores into equal interval Rasch measures. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to investigate how these aspects of lexical knowledge were related, and hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine to what extent these aspects of lexical knowledge contributed to the prediction of general reading comprehension as well as each of the five reading comprehension item types. In addition, using the percentage of correct answers, 12 anchor words across three lexical knowledge tests, the Vocabulary Size Measure, the Revised Word Associates Polysemy Test, and the Revised Word Associates Collocation, were analyzed to examine the possible presence of a hierarchical acquisitional pattern for the three aspects of lexical knowledge. The results showed strong correlations among the Vocabulary Size Measure, the Revised Word Associates Polysemy Test, and the Revised Word Associates Collocation Test, which suggested that vocabulary size and depth of vocabulary knowledge are closely related. This indicated that the more learners expand their written receptive vocabulary, the more likely they are to learn about various aspects of those words, such as their common collocation. On the contrary, none of the three lexical knowledge tests correlated significantly with the Lexical Decision Task and the Antonym Semantic Decision Task, which suggested that increases in vocabulary size and depth of lexical knowledge were not accompanied by the development of faster recognition of orthographic form or faster access to word meaning. Hence, this result implied that developing greater speed of lexical access lags behind increases in overall vocabulary size. Furthermore, the micro-analysis of 12 anchor words indicated that item dependency and considerable individual variation for each anchor word was present for the three aspects of lexical knowledge. The results also indicated that both vocabulary size and depth of lexical knowledge play significant roles in academic reading comprehension. Moreover, the two aspects of depth of vocabulary, polysemy and collocational knowledge, made unique contributions to the prediction of academic reading comprehension, which suggested that as learners’ vocabulary size approaches 3,000 words families, depth of lexical knowledge becomes increasingly important for academic reading comprehension. In a similar vein, the strong correlations among Guessing Vocabulary from Context item type, vocabulary size, and the two aspects of depth of vocabulary knowledge suggested that successful lexical guessing requires both a reasonably large vocabulary size and depth of lexical knowledge. That is, learners need to know the primary meaning of words, secondary meanings, and how the words relate to other words if they are to successfully guess the meaning of unknown words. The results also indicated that word recognition, specified as orthographic processing speed and lexical meaning access, did not uniquely contribute to the prediction of academic reading comprehension nor to the prediction of most of the five Reading Comprehension item types for the relatively low English proficiency participants in this study. Only orthographic processing speed predicted 5% of the variance in the Reading Comprehension Paraphrased Details item type; however, a plausible explanation for this finding is that it was caused by the difficulty of this item type. This finding is reasonable, as verbal efficiency theory (Perfetti, 1985) states that as lower-level processes are automatized, cognitive capacity is freed up. A possible explanation for the other insignificant results between the two reaction times tests and the other four Reading Comprehension item types is that the participants were under no pressure to complete the reading comprehension measure quickly, as it was an unspeeded test. Another plausible reason is that the participants’ L2 lexical proficiency was relatively low; therefore, they have not yet developed word recognition fluency. Finally, the results showed that the Reading Comprehension Main Idea item type and Paraphrased Details item type are more closely related to depth of vocabulary knowledge than to vocabulary size. / Teaching & Learning

This study analyzes ten beginning-level, Spanish-language graded readers in an attempt to answer the question of how much vocabulary do students need to know before being able to successfully participate in an extensive reading program. The study also analyzes the vocabulary taught in a beginning-level Spanish textbook to determine how well this vocabulary reflects the most common words in Spanish according to a frequency dictionary. It was found that a lexicon of 5,000 words was needed to obtain a sufficient level of comprehension in order for extensive reading to occur and that the textbook examined in this study did not present vocabulary that was extremely reflective of the most common words in the Spanish language.

This study investigates if year 9 pupils’ vocabulary size correlates with how much they engage in out-of-school English activities, and whether any specific out-of-school English activities correlate more with vocabulary size. 32 second language learners in year 9 participate in this study and the students are from two classes in the same school in a medium-sized town in Sweden. Two standardized vocabulary tests are done, namely a picture vocabulary size test (PVST) and a vocabulary size test (VST). The students also answer a questionnaire with questions about how often they engage in the following spare time activities: watching TV, playing video games, listening to music, watching YouTube, speaking or writing and reading. Parametric statistics are used to compare a high vocabulary group and a low vocabulary group in relation to their engagement in out-of-school activities. Even if this is a very small study, and no conclusions can be drawn on a larger population, the results indicate that the students’ vocabulary size correlates with how much they engage in out-of-school English activities and that the most important activities are reading and speaking or writing in English. / Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka om ordförrådsstorlek hos elever i årskurs 9 har ett samband med hur mycket eleverna ägnar sig åt fritidsengelska. Den undersöker också om några av dessa aktiviteter har ett särskilt samband med storleken på ordförrådet. 32 elever med engelska som andraspråk i årskurs 9 deltar i studien och eleverna går i två olika klasser på samma skola i en medelstor stad i Sverige. Två standardiserade ordförrådstester genomförs; ett picture vocabulary size test (PVST) och ett vocabulary size test (VST). Eleverna får också svara på en enkät med frågor kring hur ofta de ägnar sin fritid åt följande aktiviteter på engelska: titta på TV, spela datorspel, lyssna på musik, titta på YouTube, prata eller skriva och läsa. Parametrisk statistik används för att jämföra elever grupperade efter höga och låga resultat på ordförrådstesterna i relation till hur mycket fritidsengelska de ägnar sig åt. Även om studien är mycket liten och inga slutsatser kan dras för en större population, indikerar resultaten att det finns ett samband mellan storleken på ordförrådet och hur mycket fritidsengelska elever ägnar sig åt. De aktiviteter som påverkar mest är att läsa, prata eller skriva på engelska.

Because most–if not all–intensive English programs (IEP) assign students to specific levels based on a placement test that does not involve any form of explicit vocabulary testing, some degree of variation in lexical knowledge of students within an individual class should not be surprising. However, very little research has ever quantified this variation. The current study fills the gap in this important area of TESOL research by investigating vocabulary variation among intermediate-level students at one IEP. Participants (N=79) were split into two main proficiency groups, high intermediate (N=28) and low intermediate (N=51). The 2K, 3K, and 5K levels from the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) were used as a vocabulary measure. In this study, VLT scores were analyzed by proficiency level and by students' original individual classes (N=7). The results revealed considerable vocabulary variation. In some instances, vocabulary size varied by 900 word families per student. First language influence was also investigated by comparing the largest two language groups in the sample, Arabic (N= 28) and Spanish (N=12). Spanish-speaking students significantly outperformed the Arabic speaking students in all vocabulary measures (except for the 2K level). The study, therefore, raises questions about the approaches used in teaching a class that has both Spanish and Arabic speakers. Implications and suggestions for further studies are discussed.

This study investigates undergraduate students’ vocabulary size, and their use of formulaic language. Using the Vocabulary Levels Test (Laufer and Nation 1995), it measures the vocabulary size of native and non-native speakers of English and explores relationships between this and course of study, gender, age and home language, and their academic performance. A corpus linguistic approach is then applied to compare student writers’ uses of three high-frequency verbs (have, make and take) relative to expert writers. Multiword units (MWUs) featuring these verbs are identified and analysed, focusing on delexical MWUs as one very specific aspect of depth of vocabulary knowledge. Student and expert use of these MWUs is compared. Grammatically and semantically deviant MWUs are also analysed. Finally, relationships between the size and depth of students’ vocabulary knowledge, and between the latter and academic performance, are explored. Findings reveal that Literature students had larger vocabularies than Law students, females knew more words than males, and older students knew more than younger ones. Importantly, results indicated a relationship between vocabulary size and academic performance. Literature students produced more correct MWUs and fewer errors than Law students. Correlations suggest that the smaller students’ vocabulary, the poorer the depth of their vocabulary is likely to be. Although no robust relationship between vocabulary depth and academic performance emerged, there was evidence of an indirect link between academic performance and correct use of MWUs. In bringing together traditional methods of measuring vocabulary size with an investigation of depth of vocabulary knowledge using corpus analysis methods, this study provides further evidence of the importance of vocabulary knowledge to academic performance. It contributes to debates on the value of a sound knowledge of high-frequency vocabulary and a developing knowledge of at least 5000 words to academic performance, and the analysis and quantification of errors in MWUs adds to our understanding of novice writers’ difficulties with these combinations. The study also explores new ways of investigating relationships between size and depth of vocabulary knowledge, and between depth of vocabulary knowledge and academic performance. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

This study investigates undergraduate students’ vocabulary size, and their use of formulaic language. Using the Vocabulary Levels Test (Laufer and Nation 1995), it measures the vocabulary size of native and non-native speakers of English and explores relationships between this and course of study, gender, age and home language, and their academic performance. A corpus linguistic approach is then applied to compare student writers’ uses of three high-frequency verbs (have, make and take) relative to expert writers. Multiword units (MWUs) featuring these verbs are identified and analysed, focusing on delexical MWUs as one very specific aspect of depth of vocabulary knowledge. Student and expert use of these MWUs is compared. Grammatically and semantically deviant MWUs are also analysed. Finally, relationships between the size and depth of students’ vocabulary knowledge, and between the latter and academic performance, are explored. Findings reveal that Literature students had larger vocabularies than Law students, females knew more words than males, and older students knew more than younger ones. Importantly, results indicated a relationship between vocabulary size and academic performance. Literature students produced more correct MWUs and fewer errors than Law students. Correlations suggest that the smaller students’ vocabulary, the poorer the depth of their vocabulary is likely to be. Although no robust relationship between vocabulary depth and academic performance emerged, there was evidence of an indirect link between academic performance and correct use of MWUs. In bringing together traditional methods of measuring vocabulary size with an investigation of depth of vocabulary knowledge using corpus analysis methods, this study provides further evidence of the importance of vocabulary knowledge to academic performance. It contributes to debates on the value of a sound knowledge of high-frequency vocabulary and a developing knowledge of at least 5000 words to academic performance, and the analysis and quantification of errors in MWUs adds to our understanding of novice writers’ difficulties with these combinations. The study also explores new ways of investigating relationships between size and depth of vocabulary knowledge, and between depth of vocabulary knowledge and academic performance. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

Keywords: Advanced learners, bilingual students, vocabulary, student vocabulary size, case study, receptive vocabulary, productive vocabulary Secondary-school teachers at Czech schools are encountering an increasing number of students who are significantly ahead of their peers. These students are either bilinguals or advanced learners. Regardless of the students' proficiency, the Czech education system enforces these students to keep attending further English classes, which often positions their teacher before a burdening question of what to teach these students. Scientific research postulates that a potential weakness of the said type of students could be vocabulary. This hypothesis was verified in this thesis, with the aid of Paul Nation VLT and Laufer & Nation Productive Vocabulary tests. The second goal of this thesis was to set a typical profile of advanced-learner and bilingual student through a survey. Results from the tests confirmed a significant deficiency in all of twelve test-subjects' productive vocabulary. Receptive vocabulary tests nonetheless revealed large receptive vocabulary size with eleven of tested subjects. Based on these findings, the recommended method for students this advanced is to allow them more autonomy, particularly through extensive reading, and to assign them...

Research has shown that the extent of students' vocabulary in the language of learning and teaching, as an important component of overall language proficiency, plays a crucial role in reading and academic success, whether students are studying through their mother tongue or not. This study compares the vocabulary size of Grade 7 English second language immersion students with that of their English mother tongue classmates, focusing primarily on receptive vocabulary. Two aspects of immersion that South African children may experience are identified: length and quality. It is assumed that the longer the immersion, and the richer the immersion environment, the more positive the effect on vocabulary size will be. Overall results suggest that length has a slightly stronger effect on receptive vocabulary size than quality, though both are generally positive, and that most immersion students are beginning to develop a basic receptive vocabulary size comparable with that of their English mother tongue peers. / Linguistics / (M.A. (Linguistics))