The study of novel properties of materials in nanometer length scales has been an extensive area of research in the recent past. The field of nanosciece and nanotechnology deals with such studies and has gained tremendous importance because of the potential applications of these nanosystems in devices. Many of the bulk properties tend to change as a function of size, be it particle size in case of nanoparticles, or thickness in case of very thin films. Not only is it important to study these changes from the point of view of applications, but also the interesting physics behind such changes prompts further research and exploration in this area. In this thesis we try to see how changes in the length scales affect the properties of nanoparticles and how change in thickness affects the properties of thin films, along with making an effort towards measurements of conductivity in the nanoscale using the technique of electron magnetic resonance (EMR) signal shape analysis. Electron magnetic resonance is a general term used to combine both electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and ferromagnetic resonance (FMR). This thesis deals with mainly two kinds of systems viz., nanoparticles of doped rare earth manganites and thin films of the conducting polymer, vapor phase polymerized polyethylendioxythiophene (VPP PEDOT). The general formula for doped manganites is A1-xBxMnO3 where A is a rare earth trivalent cation like La3+, Pr3+, Nd3+..., and B is an alkaline earth divalent cation like Sr2+, Ca2+, Ba2+... These together with Mn and O form the distorted perovskite structure to which manganites belong. The phase diagram of doped manganites involves many interesting phases like ferromagnetic metallic, antiferromagnetic insulating and charge ordered insulating phases. The magnetic properties of the manganites are governed by exchange interactions between the Mn ion spins. These interactions are relatively large between two Mn spins separated by an oxygen atom and are controlled by the overlap between the Mn d-orbitals and the O p-orbitals. The changing Mn-O-Mn bond lengths and bond angles as a function of the radius of the A and B cations [1, 2], and the different magnetic interactions among the Mn3+ and Mn4+ ions together are responsible for the different phases that we see in manganites as a function of temperature and magnetic field. Manganites have potential applications in the field of spintronics because of their colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) [3] and half-metallic [4] properties. Studies on nanoscale manganites have shown that as size reduces, their electrical and magnetic properties change significantly[5]. By changing the morphology and grain size, the properties of CMR manganites can be tuned [6-9]. Phase separation seems to disappear in nanoparticles compared to bulk [10]. In the charge ordered manganites, size reduction is known to bring about suppression of charge order [11], emergence of ferromagnetism [12, 13] and even metallicity in some nanostructures [12]. The conducting polymer under study viz., VPP PEDOT is in a semiconducting phase at room temperature and becomes more insulating as temperature reduces. It is a technologically important polymer which has cathodically coloring property, can be used as a highly conducting electrode in organic solar cells and organic LEDs [14-16]. In the following we give a summary of the results reported in the thesis chapter by chapter. Chapter 1: This chapter of the thesis consists of an introduction to the physics of manganites and the technique of EMR. This includes a detailed account of previous EMR studies done on manganites, in particular nano manganites. There is a section about different line shapes observed in EMR of manganites, their origin and how to fit them to an appropriate lineshape function [17]. There is an introduction to the transport properties of conducting polymers, including how magnetic fields can affect the transport and the mechanism behind variable range hopping transport which is the dominant kind of transport in such polymeric systems. There is also a description of the different experimental methods and instruments used to study the systems in the thesis and their working principles. They are: EPR spectrometer, SQUID magnetometer, Janis cryostat with superconducting magnet, atomic force microscope (AFM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). Chapter 2: This chapter deals with the method of contactless conductivity of nanoparticles using EMR lineshape analysis. It is difficult to measure the conductivity of individual nanoparticles by putting contacts. Other methods tend to include the contribution of grain boundaries which mask the grain characteristics [5]. We have introduced a new contactless method to measure the conductivity of nanoparticles in a contactless manner [18]. Metallic nanoparticles in which the skin depth is less than the size of the particles, exhibit an asymmetric EMR signal called the Dysonian [19]. Dysonian lineshape is an asymmetric lineshape with the so-called A/B ratio >1, where, A is the amplitude of the low field half of the derivative and B is the amplitude of the high field half. In a ferromagnetic conducting sample, the lineshape has contributions from the Dysonian part and also a part which arises due to magnetocrystalline anisotropy [20]. We have developed a method of deconvoluting the signals from conducting nanoparticles to take out the Dysonian part from them and measure the A/B ratio as a function of temperature. The A/B ratio thus determined can then be used to find out the ratio of the sample size to the skin depth using the work by Kodera [21]. The skin depth can be used to determine the conductivity by using the relationship  = (1/)1/2, where,  is the measuring frequency,  is the conductivity and  is the permeability. This technique has been used to determine the conductivity as a function of temperature (from 60 K to 300 K) of La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) nanoparticles of average size 17 nm. The method has been cross-checked by measuring the conductivity of bulk LSMO particles at 300 K by EMR lineshape analysis method and by standard four-probe method, which give conductivity values close to each other within experimental error. Chapter 3: In this chapter, we report a novel phenomenon of disappearance of electron-hole asymmetry in nanoparticles of charge ordered Pr1-xCaxMnO3 (PCMO). In bulk PCMO there is asymmetry in electric and magnetic properties seen on either side of x = 0.5. In the samples with x = 0.36 (hole doped: called PCMH) and x = 0.64 (electron doped: called PCME), the bulk sample has opposite g-shifts as observed in EPR signals [22]. PCME sample shows g-value less than and PCMH sample shows g-value greater than the free electron g-value at room temperature. This is explained using the opposite sign of the spin-orbit coupling constant for the two different kinds of charge carriers. But when the size of PCMH and PCME is reduced to nanoscale (average size ~ 20 nm), the g-shift was seen on the same side i.e., positive and almost equal g-shift in both cases. This points towards a disappearance of electron-hole asymmetry at nanoscale. This positive g-shift is analyzed in the two cases in the light of disappearance of charge ordering and emergence of ferromagnetism in these systems, since emergence of ferromagnetic hysteresis is noticed at low temperatures in both nano PCMH and nano PCME. In nano PCMH, charge ordering completely disappears and in nano PCME it weakens. Exchange bias is seen in both the systems, suggestive of core-shell structure [23] in the nanoparticles. Other competing factors include spin-other orbit interactions and size reduction induced metallicity [12] which can average out the anisotropies in the system, causing the asymmetry to disappear. Chapter 4: This chapter deals with thickness induced change in transport mechanism in VPP PEDOT thin films. Two samples were studied with average thickness of 120 nm (VP-1) and 150 nm (VP-2). The average room temperature conductivity of VP-1 was found to be 126 Scm-1 and VP-2 was 424 Scm-1. The transport mechanism in VP-1 is seen to be 2-dimensional variable range hopping (VRH) [24]. However, as the thickness increases by 30 nm, the transport mechanism in VP-2 is found to be 3-dimensional VRH. The low temperature magnetotransport is analyzed in the two systems and it shows that there is wavefunction shrinkage in both the systems at 1.3 K [24]. The DC transport results are cross checked with AC transport data at 5 different temperatures in the frequency range of 40 Hz to 110 MHz. The data can be analyzed by using the extended pair approximation model [25]. The AC transport shows the presence of a critical frequency 0 which marks the transition from the frequency independent to a frequency dependent region. The value of 0 decreasing with decreasing temperature suggests that the system is becoming more insulating and it supports the DC transport model of VRH. The morphological studies were done using AFM which revealed higher grain size for VP-2, confirming the direct correlation of the average grain size with the conductivity of the sample. Chapter 5: summarizes the main conclusions of the thesis, also pointing out some future directions for research in the field.

The phenomenon of Virtual Power Plant (VPP) has gained increased attention in many parts of the world in recent years. In 2022 the European Union, in response to the rising energy prices as well as the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, set a goal of speeding up the process of creating a digital energy system (European Commission, 2022, p. 20). VPP is the/a solution to the problem, and the EU is set to start its deployment of a common European energy data space no later than 2024 (European Commission, 2022, p. 3).  Previous academic research on VPP has been conducted on the technical aspects of the phenomenon and the adoption of VPP has not been approached from a consumer standpoint. We therefore identified a research gap, since, to the best of our knowledge, no qualitative or quantitative research has been conducted in the area of acceptance of VPP by individuals or households. We could see that there is a need for this type of research due to the goals set by the European Union, and the lack of current research. To fulfill the purpose of our study, we draw on the literatures on supplier switching in homogenous markets, innovation adoption, and technology acceptance to develop a conceptual framework and further empirically extend it via a mixed-method approach. The qualitative component of the study consists of three online on-on-one interviews, conducted with the help of a discussion guide. The interviewees selected were considered to be appropriate participants, suited for our study. The interviews gave us a deeper understanding of how VPP came across to the Swedish consumer, as well as how it was perceived by them. The quantitative study was done by the means of a survey of 75 respondents, enabling us to conduct a set of linear regressions in order to test our hypotheses.  Through our mixed-method study, we were able to develop an integrative framework, showcasing factors related to Swedish consumers’ intention to partake in VPP. We could conclude that Swedish consumers see value in VPP, and that there is curiosity related to the topic which indicates that there is an interest to explore and partake in VPP. We further discuss a range of recommendations to policy-makers and energy providers, as well as the potential contributions of VPP to the two important social aspects: sustainability and energy security.

Les politiques entreprises dans le domaine de la production d’électricité pour lutter contre le changement climatique reposent communément sur le remplacement des moyens de production fossiles et centralisés par de nouveaux moyens de type renouvelables. Ces énergies renouvelables sont en grande partie distribuées dans les réseaux moyenne et basse tension et sont le plus souvent intermittentes (énergies éolienne et photovoltaïque principalement). Les gestionnaires de réseaux s’attentent à ce que ce changement de paradigme induise des difficultés conséquences dans leurs opérations. Les mondes de la recherche et de l’industrie se sont ainsi structurés depuis le milieu des années 2000 afin d’apporter une réponse aux problèmes anticipés. Cette réponse passe notamment par le déploiement de technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC) dans les réseaux électriques, des centres de contrôle jusqu’au sein même des moyens de production distribués. C’est ce que l’on appelle le Smart Grid. Parmi le champ des possibles du Smart Grid, ces travaux de thèses se sont en particulier attachés à apporter une réponse aux enjeux de stabilité en fréquence du système électrique, mise en danger par la réduction anticipée de l’inertie des systèmes électriques et la raréfaction des moyens de fourniture de réserve primaire (FCR), auxquels incombent le maintien de la fréquence en temps réel. En vue de suppléer les moyens de fourniture de réserve conventionnels et centralisés, il a ainsi été élaboré un concept de coordination de charges électriques délestables distribuées, qui se déconnectent et se reconnectent de manière autonome sur le réseau au gré des variations de fréquence mesurées sur site. Ces modulations de puissance répondent à un schéma préétabli qui dépend de la consommation électrique effective de chacune des charges. Ces travaux ont été complétés d’une étude technico-économique visant à réutiliser cette infrastructure de coordination de charges délestables pour la fourniture de services systèmes ou de produits de gros complémentaires. Ce travail de thèse réalisée au sein des équipes innovation de Schneider Electric et du laboratoire de Génie Electrique de Grenoble (G2Elab), est en lien avec les projets Européens EvolvDSO et Dream, financés dans le cadre du programme FP7 de la Commission Européenne. / Climate change mitigation policies in the power generation industry lead commonly on the replacement of bulk generation assets by Renewable Energy Resources (RES-E). Such RES-E are largely distributed among the medium and low voltage grids and most of them are intermittent like photovoltaic and wind power. System Operators expect that such new power system paradigm induces significant complications in their operations. The communities of research and industry started thus to structure themselves in the mid-2000s in order to respond to these coming issues, notably through the deployment of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in power systems assets, from the Network Operations Centers (NOCs) down to Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) units. This is the Smart Grid. Among the range of possibilities of the Smart Grid, this Ph.D work aims in priority to provide a solution to handle the issue of frequency stability of the power system that are endangered by the combined loss of inertia of the power system and the phasing-out of conventional assets which used to be in charge of the maintain of the frequency in real time through the supply of Frequency Containment Reserve (FCR). The concept developed lead on a process of coordinated modulation of the level of loads of DERs, whose evolve depending on the system frequency measured in real time on-site. The strategy of modulation of each DER follows a pattern which is determined at the scale of the portfolio of aggregation of the DER, depending on the effective level of load of the DER at normal frequency (i.e. 50Hz in Europe). This work is completed by a cost benefit analysis that assesses the opportunity of sharing of the previous infrastructure of coordinated modulation of DERs for the supply of ancillary services and wholesale products. This thesis conducted within Schneider Electric’s Innovation teams and Grenoble Electrical Engineering Laboratory (G2Elab) is linked with the European projects Dream and EvolvDSO, and funded under European Commission’s FP7 program.

本研究針對先進國家「用戶群代表」制度之政策與法規進行探討，並進一步探討如何施行於台灣電力市場。首先定義並解釋「用戶群代表」涵意後，整理出先進國家(包含美國、歐盟、德國、澳洲、韓國五個地區與EnerNOC、Comverge、CPower、OhmConnect四個公司)的用戶群代表商業模式案例，藉由文獻分析與個案研究，觀察先進國家政策方向與用戶群代表市場定位差異。同時，本研究由我國用戶群代表相關制度法規，探討用戶群代表於我國電力市場實施之適法性。此外，本研究根據文獻回顧整理出發展用戶群代表制度的關鍵成功因素，並詳細探討我國當前條件是否適合發展。最後針對政府與台電、產業界、學術界、電力用戶的不同角度，提出可行的政策法規建議。 / This thesis explores the policies and regulations of aggregator systems in advanced countries and explores how to implement aggregator system in Taiwan electricity market. In order to achieve this objective, we first define and elaborate the meanings of aggregator. Then, experience and case studies of USA, European Union, Germany, Australia and Korea are studied. In addition, business models of four aggregators, EnerNOC, Comverge, CPower and OhmConnect are presented. Furthermore, we examine current related regulations of an aggregator in Taiwan electricity market for feasibility analysis. In addition, this study summarizes the key success factors of the development of aggregator systems according to the literature review, and discusses in detail whether Taiwan's current conditions are suitable for development. Finally, market models and policy regulations in relation to the aggregator are recommended.

The high penetration of renewable energies (RE) in power systems is increasing the volatile production on the generation side and the presence of distributed energy resources (DER) over the territory. On the other hand, Virtual Power Plants (VPPs) are an aggregation of DER managed as a single entity to promote flexibility services to power systems. Therefore, VPPs are a valid approach to cope with the arising challenges in the power system related to RE penetration. This report defines the concept of a utility-scale VPP, as a tool to stabilize the grid and increase the flexibility capacity in power systems. For this purpose, the report places special emphasis in the use cases that can be developed with a utility-scale VPP. Nevertheless, implementing a utility-scale VPP is a complex procedure, as VPP solutions are highly customizable depending on the scope and the conditions of each project. For this reason, this report analyses the main factors that must be taken into account when implementing a VPP solution. The report concludes that the two most critical factors that define the viability of a VPP project are, first, the energy market design and regulatory framework and second, the technical requirements. These two must always align with the scope of the project and the use cases intended to be developed. Further, other minor factors, including a cost estimate for a VPP solution, are also considered in the report. / Den höga penetrationen av förnybara energier i kraftsystem ökar den flyktiga produktionen på produktionssidan och närvaron av distribuerade energiresurser över territoriet. Å andra sidan är virtuella kraftverk en sammanställning av distribuerade energiresurser som hanteras som en enda enhet för att främja flexibilitetstjänster till kraftsystem. Därför är virtuella kraftverk: er en giltig strategi för att hantera de uppkomna utmaningarna i kraftsystemet relaterat till förnybara energier genomslag. I denna rapport definieras konceptet med en virtuella kraftverk verktygsskala som ett verktyg för att stabilisera nätet och öka flexibilitetskapaciteten i kraftsystem. För detta ändamål lägger rapporten särskild tonvikt på användningsfall som kan utvecklas med en virtuella kraftverk-nytta. Trots det är implementering av en virtuella kraftverknyckelskala en komplex procedur, eftersom virtuella kraftverk-lösningar är mycket anpassningsbara beroende på omfattning och villkor för varje projekt. Av denna anledning analyserar denna rapport de viktigaste faktorerna som måste beaktas vid implementering av en VPP-lösning. Rapporten drar slutsatsen att de två mest kritiska faktorerna som definierar ett virtuella kraftverk projekts livskraft är, dels energimarknadens utformning och regelverk och för det andra de tekniska kraven. Dessa två måste alltid anpassa sig till projektets omfattning och användningsfall som är avsedda att utvecklas. Vidare beaktas även andra mindre faktorer, inklusive en kostnadsuppskattning för en virtuella kraftverk lösning, i rapporten.

En los últimos años la función de la planificación de la distribución se ha venido haciéndose más compleja como consecuencia de la elevada integración de recursos energéticos distribuidos (DER, por sus siglas en inglés) en los escenarios a considerar, principalmente de generación distribuida (DG, por sus siglas en inglés), almacenamiento de energía distribuido y gestión de la demanda (DR; por sus siglas en inglés). Esta situación se ha acentuado con la aparición de nuevos elementos de consumo como el vehículo eléctrico, que podrían causar un impacto elevado en las redes de distribución si no se gestionan adecuadamente. Esta tesis presenta un enfoque innovador hacia una planificación dinámica en la cual se integra la gestión, la capacidad y el control de los recursos energéticos distribuidos con objeto de proporcionar soluciones de planificación óptimas que permitan la consecución de ahorros significativos en los costos asociados. En primer lugar, se describe detalladamente la evolución y situación actual de la previsión de la demanda y de las metodologías de planificación basadas en redes inteligentes que se ha encontrado en la literatura. De la realización de este estudio, se puede concluir que hay numerosos modelos de previsión de la demanda y de planificación, así como diferentes formas de resolverlos, pero todos tienen un denominador en común, ya que en ninguno de estos estudios se ha planteado en profundidad la planificación considerando la generación distribuida a nivel de consumidores, la gestión de la demanda y la introducción masiva de nuevas cargas de consumo como el vehículo eléctrico o cocinas de inducción. Se ha podido observar que la planificación de la red eléctrica ha evolucionado desde un ambiente determinístico centralizado hacía una red estocástica o aleatoria distribuida. En orden a mantener los objetivos de una red inteligente, se requiere capturar este comportamiento estocástico a través de una nueva metodología de planificación, es por este motivo por el cual en este estudio se ha considerado un modelo probabilístico con objeto de estimar el comportamiento del consumo de los citados nuevos elementos (vehículo eléctrico y cocinas de inducción), teniendo en cuenta los hábitos de uso de los consumidores para obtener el comportamiento del factor de simultaneidad. Como resultado esta tesis propone el desarrollo de un nuevo modelo de planificación donde se consideren todos estos componentes activos partiendo del diseño de un modelo conceptual, e incluyendo el diseño de la red de comunicaciones y de las tecnologías de la información que darán soporte a este modelo basado en redes inteligentes para lograr los mejores beneficios. Esta metodología consiste en la integración de todos estos elementos y la posibilidad de gestión que ofrece el nuevo concepto de redes inteligentes, satisfaciendo el crecimiento de la demanda con los nuevos consumos durante el tiempo planificado, determinando las acciones futuras y las inversiones asociadas para poder alcanzar unos niveles de servicio a nivel de consumidor adecuados. Finalmente, este modelo de Planificación Eficiente de Redes Inteligentes que incluye las potenciales mejoras introducidas gracias a la Gestión Activa de la Demanda, fue aplicado a una zona determinada dentro del área metropolitana de Guayaquil (Ecuador). Esta área está principalmente compuesta de consumidores residenciales y comerciales, y presenta unas necesidades de aire acondicionado elevadas, lo que caracteriza fundamentalmente el comportamiento de la demanda eléctrica de dicha zona. Como resultado de esta aplicación, se ha podido comprobar que mediante la utilización de los programas de respuesta de la demanda se podrían reducir los costos de inversión a mediano plazo. / In recent years, the distribution planning activity has become more complex because of the high integration of distributed energy resources (DER) in the considered scenarios, mainly distributed generation (DG), distributed energy storage and demand response (DR). The arising of new consumption elements such as the electric vehicle, which could produce a high impact on the distribution networks if it not properly managed, has highlighted this situation. This doctoral dissertation presents an innovative approach focused on the dynamic planning of the power grid, where the management, capacity and control of distributed energy resources is integrated in order to provide optimal planning solutions, which would provide significant savings in the associated costs. In first place, the evolution and current situation of demand forecasting and planning methodologies based on smart grids that available in the literature are described in detail. As a result, it can be concluded that there are numerous models of demand forecasting and planning, as well as different ways of solving the. However, the planning considering the distributed generation at the consumer level, the demand side management or the massive introduction of new loads of consumption such as electric vehicles or induction cookers have not been considered in depth in any of these studies. It has been observed that the planning of electrical networks has evolved from a centralized and deterministic environment to a distributed stochastic or random network. In order to maintain the objectives of a smart grid, it is necessary to capture this stochastic behavior through a new planning methodology. This is why in this study, a probabilistic model has been considered in order to estimate the consumption behavior of the aforementioned new elements (electric vehicles and induction cookers), taking into account consumers' habits in order to obtain the simultaneity factors. As a result, this dissertation proposes the development of a new planning model where all these active components are considered, starting from the development of a conceptual model and including the design of the communications network and the information technologies that will support this model based on smart grids to achieve the best benefits. This methodology includes the integration of all these elements and the possibility of management offered by the new concept of smart grids, satisfying the growth of demand with new consumptions during the planned time, determining the future actions and the required investments for reaching adequate levels of service at the consumer level. In order to prove the effectiveness of the proposed model of Efficient Planning of Smart Grids, that includes the potential improvements introduced thanks to the Active Management of Demand, it has been applied to a specific zone located within the metropolitan area of Guayaquil (Ecuador). This area is mainly composed of residential and commercial consumers, and it has high air conditioning needs, which fundamentally characterizes the behavior of the electricity demand there. As a result of this application, it has been possible to verify that using the demand response programs could reduce investment costs in the medium term. / En els últims anys la funció de la planificació de la distribució ha vingut fent-se més complexa com a conseqüència de l'elevada integració de recursos energètics distribuïts (DER, per les sigles en anglès) en els escenaris a considerar, principalment de generació distribuïda (DG, per les sigles en anglès), emmagatzemament d'energia distribuïda i gestió de la demanda (DR; per les sigles en anglès). Aquesta situació s'ha accentuat amb l'aparició de nous elements de consum com el vehicle elèctric, que podrien causar un impacte elevat en les xarxes de distribució si no es gestionen adequadament. Aquesta tesi presenta un enfocament innovador cap a una planificació dinàmica en la qual s'integra la gestió, la capacitat i el control dels recursos energètics distribuïts a fi de proporcionar solucions de planificació òptimes que permeten la consecució d'estalvis significatius en els costos associats. En primer lloc, es descriu detalladament l'evolució i situació actual de la previsió de la demanda i de les metodologies de planificació basades en xarxes intel·ligents que s'ha trobat en la literatura. De la realització d'aquest estudi, es pot concloure que hi ha nombrosos models de previsió de la demanda i de planificació, així com diferents formes de resoldre'ls, però tots tenen un denominador en comú, ja que en cap d'estos estudis s'ha plantejat en profunditat la planificació considerant la generació distribuïda a nivell de consumidors, la gestió de la demanda i la introducció massiva de noves càrregues de consum com el vehicle elèctric o cuines d'inducció. S'ha pogut observar que la planificació de la xarxa elèctrica ha evolucionat des d'un ambient determinístic centralitzat cap a una xarxa estocàstica o aleatòria distribuïda. Amb vista a mantindre els objectius d'una xarxa intel·ligent, es requereix capturar aquest comportament estocàstic a través d'una nova metodologia de planificació, és per aquest motiu pel qual en aquest estudi s'ha considerat un model probabilístic a fi d'estimar el comportament del consum dels citats nous elements (vehicle elèctric i cuines d'inducció) , tenint en compte els hàbits d'ús dels consumidors per a obtindre el comportament del factor de simultaneïtat. Com a resultat aquesta tesi proposa el desenvolupament d'un nou model de planificació on es consideren tots aquests components actius partint del disseny d'un model conceptual, i incloent el disseny de la xarxa de comunicacions i de les tecnologies de la informació que donaran suport a aquest model basat en xarxes intel·ligents per a aconseguir els millors beneficis. Aquesta metodologia consisteix en la integració de tots aquests elements i la possibilitat de gestió que ofereix el nou concepte de xarxes intel·ligents, satisfent el creixement de la demanda amb els nous consums durant el temps planificat, determinant les accions futures i les inversions associades per a poder aconseguir uns nivells de servici a nivell de consumidor adequats. Finalment, aquest model de Planificació Eficient de Xarxes Intel·ligents que inclou les potencials millores introduïdes gràcies a la Gestió Activa de la Demanda, va ser aplicat a una zona determinada dins de l'àrea metropolitana de Guayaquil (Equador). Aquesta àrea està principalment composta per consumidors residencials i comercials, i presenta unes necessitats d'aire condicionat elevades, la qual cosa caracteritza fonamentalment el comportament de la demanda elèctrica de aquesta zona. Com a resultat d'aquesta aplicació, s'ha pogut comprovar que per mitjà de la utilització dels programes de resposta de la demanda es podrien reduir els costos d'inversió a mitjà termini. / Pesantez Sarmiento, PA. (2018). Planificación Eficiente de Redes Inteligentes (Smartgrids) Incluyendo la Gestión Activa de la Demanda: Aplicación a Ecuador [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/103684