Chan Kwan-ling. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 91-105). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgements --- p.v / Contents --- p.vi / List of figures and tables --- p.ix / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- Literature review --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- The effect of pollutants on the genetic materials of aquatic organisms --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1.1 --- Response of individual to genotoxicants --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1.2 --- Effects of genotoxicants on population structure --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Application of genetic markers in monitoring water pollution --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.2.1 --- DNA adduct --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.2.2 --- Sister chromatid exchange (SCE) test --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1.2.3 --- Micronucleus --- p.6 / Chapter 1.1.2.4 --- DNA strand breaks --- p.7 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- Test organisms for comet assay --- p.12 / Chapter 1.2 --- Objective of the present study --- p.13 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Genotoxicity of pollutants on Hyale crassicornis / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2 --- Materials and methods --- p.24 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Sampling of amphipods --- p.24 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Acclimation --- p.24 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Acute toxicity test --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- The effect of test duration on DNA damage --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Effect of toxicants on DNA damage --- p.28 / Chapter 2.2.6 --- Comet assay --- p.29 / Chapter 2.2.7 --- Chemicals --- p.34 / Chapter 2.2.8 --- Data analysis --- p.34 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4 --- Discussion --- p.47 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Genotoxicity of hydrogen peroxide on different tissue types of Metapenaeus ensis / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.54 / Chapter 3.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.57 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Collection and acclimation of shrimps --- p.57 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Incubation --- p.59 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Comet Assay --- p.60 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- Chemicals --- p.61 / Chapter 3.2.5 --- Data analysis --- p.61 / Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.61 / Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion --- p.67 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Genotoxicity of wastewater on Hyale crassicornis / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.71 / Chapter 4.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.72 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Collection of wastewater samples --- p.72 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Metal content analysis --- p.73 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Genotoxic effect of wastewater samples on Hyale crassicornis --- p.74 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Chemicals --- p.76 / Chapter 4.2.5 --- Statistical analysis --- p.77 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results --- p.77 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Metals content in water samples --- p.77 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- DNA damage --- p.79 / Chapter 4.4 --- Discussion --- p.79 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Conclusions --- p.89 / References --- p.91

Post-remediation soil, ground and surface water monitoring is essential to assess the effectiveness of remediation efforts undertaken to eliminate or minimize the risk of pollution to human health and valuable ecosystems. In that regard, comparison of pollution levels pre- and post-remediation is an effective way of evaluating the effectiveness of the remediation techniques used. Thus, this study sought to measure concentrations of pollutants in the soil, ground and surface water post remediation in Steel Valley, Vanderbijlpark and compare them to concentration levels prior to remediation, as well as compare them to internationally accepted standards with respect to risk to humans and the environment. Water samples were collected from three locations within the study site, in both the dry and rainy seasons and their physio-chemical and organic properties were tested. Soil samples were collected from six different locations within the study site and analysed for metal concentrations. The data was compared against that of the Iron and Steel Corporation (ISCOR) Vanderbijlpark Environmental Master Plan (EMP), water and soil guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as South African water and soil guidelines. The study found that groundwater is generally safe for domestic use but Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn) concentrations were above South African water quality guideline levels – with their concentrations ranging from 0.54 to 0.91 mg/L, 1.01 to 1.86 mg/L and 0.24 to 0.53 mg/L respectively. There were no traces of organic pollution in the water samples. Soil samples had levels of Al ranging from 1106 mg/kg to 1 3621 mg/kg, Mn concentrations in the range of 202.8 to 966.4 mg/kg and Fe ranging from 1 1587 to 23 201 mg/kg. Thus, water and soil at the selected sites are safe in terms of physico-chemical and organic quality. Natural attenuation should be able, over time, to further reduce the levels of parameters that are currently above the target range. Thus, there has been considerable reduction in pollutant concentrations, but as this study was limited in scope, additional research is needed to verify the results. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

Contaminants such as pharmaceuticals are of increasing concern due to their ubiquitous use and persistence in surface waters worldwide. Limited attention has been paid to the effects of pharmaceuticals on marine life, despite widespread detection of these contaminants in the marine environment. Of the existing studies, the majority assess the negative effects of pharmaceuticals over an exposure period of 30 days or less and focus on cellular and subcellular biomarkers. Longer studies are required to determine if chronic contaminant exposure poses risks to marine life at environmentally relevant concentrations. Also scarce in the literature is examination of whole organism effects to identify potential community-level consequences. Two long-term studies with the antidepressant pharmaceutical, fluoxetine (the active constituent in Prozac®) were conducted to determine whether nominal concentrations detected in estuarine and coastal environments affect organism health and interactions. First, we measured whole organism metrics in the California mussel, Mytilus californianus over a period of 107 days. Specifically, we measured algal clearance rates, growth, and condition indices for both reproductive and overall health. We found that fluoxetine negatively affects all measured characteristics, however many effects are mediated by length of exposure. Perhaps the most notable result was that mussels spiked with fluoxetine cleared less algae after 30 days of exposure. Reduced growth and condition indices likely are a consequence of improper nutrition among fluoxetine-treated mussels. Any level of fluoxetine significantly affected the gonadosomatic index after 47 days. The results from this study on mussels fill an important data gap, highlighting organism-level effects of chronic exposure periods; such data more explicitly identify the impacts of pharmaceuticals and other contaminants on marine communities and ecosystems. Fluoxetine has also been documented to affect the behavior of fish and invertebrates, including freshwater and marine bivalves, crustaceans, and fish. Given that other crustaceans exhibited increased activity levels under fluoxetine exposure, we hypothesized that this would subject them to greater predation risk. In our second exposure study, we assessed whether a similar range of fluoxetine concentrations used in the mussel study altered the risk behavior of the Oregon mud crab, Hemigrapsus oregonensis, in response to a common predator, the red rock crab, Cancer productus. We conducted this study for 60 days, conducting day and night behavioral trials (with and without predators) four times a week. We found that crabs exposed to any amount of fluoxetine (3 or 30 ng/L) had increased activity levels relative to controls; however behaviors of 3 ng/L-spiked crabs were not always significantly different from controls. Among control crabs, day and night trials yielded similar results, where a clear response to the addition of the predator was observed. Crabs dosed with fluoxetine exhibited more foraging and active behaviors in the presence of the predator. Additionally, crabs spiked with fluoxetine at 30 ng/L had the greatest risk of mortality either by predation by red rock crabs or due to more aggressive behaviors among conspecifics. The results of this study shed light on a particularly unexplored area of contaminants research: how do psychoactive pharmaceuticals affect animal behavior when exposed to the low concentrations persisting in the aquatic environment for a prolonged period of time?

The Clean Water Act requires the establishment of Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for quantifying allowable pollutant loads for stream reaches in which the biological integrity of the stream is threatened. Sediment TMDLs in urban streams are particularly difficult to establish because they require (1) reliable measurement of sediment loads and (2) the ability to locate sediment sources. This research has attempted to address these challenges through a field study of North Peachtree Creek located in DeKalb County, Georgia, which has been sampled at the Century Boulevard crossing through automatic point sampling and depth-integrated sampling. Storm events from October 2003 through October 2004 provided a field record of sediment concentration and turbidity data over a wide range of storm events. Bed and bank sediment samples were collected for comparison with the point samples and depth-integrated samples. A methodology is presented whereby point sampling is used to calculate suspended sediment discharge and turbidity analysis is used to locate and characterize sediment sources. Point samples provide the boundary condition in the Rouse solution for the vertical distribution of suspended sediment to obtain suspended sediment discharge, which is then calibrated through comparison with depth-integrated sampling. The computer model HEC-RAS (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1998) was applied to the stream reach to calculate the energy grade line slope throughout each storm event for input into the sediment discharge calculations. A favorable relationship between turbidity and suspended fine sediment was found at the sampling cross-section and, through comparison with bed and bank sediment samples, was used to identify the contribution of eroded bank sediment to the total sediment discharge.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / This study investigated the potential of a soil-turf filter to renovate secondary effluent applied in excess of consumptive use. Lysimeter plots were filled with a sand and a sand mix, and seeded to winter ryegrass. In spring, plots were scalped and seeded to bermudagrass. Plots were drip irrigated twice a week with secondary effluent at rates of 10, 17, 22, 34, and 43 mm/day. Leachate and effluent were analyzed for NH -N, NO,-N, and organic-N. Grass clippings were oven dried, weighed, and analyzed for organic -N. Percent of leachate available for groundwater recharge was 50% at the lowest rate and 68% at the highest rate when values were averaged for both soils. The amount of nitrogen removed by the soil-turf filter using sand was 42 to 87% and 52 to 90% on the mix, decreasing as application rate increased. The highest nitrogen removal and utilization occurred at the lowest application rate. Turf utilization of nitrogen was 10 to 28% on sand and 18 to 36% on mix, decreasing as rate of application increased. The sand-turf filter renovated 22 mm/day and the mix-turf filter renovated 43 mm/day, yielding leachate averaging less than 10 ppm NO₃-N.

The Baynespruit, a stream running through the city of Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal, is blighted by chronic, severe solid and liquid waste pollution in the form of sewage, industrial effluent and household garbage. It drains a large residential area, then flows through the city's main industrial area before reaching a low-income neighbourhood whose residents are unable to use the water for recreation and small-scale agricultural irrigation due to its polluted state. Both the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) and the local Msunduzi Municipality have been largely unsuccessful in their attempts to use regulatory means to address the situation over the past two decades. Bodies such as the Msunduzi Catchment Management Forum (MCMF) have little representation from industry and have been equally unable to initiate effective action. One possible way to work toward reducing pollution problems is to involve all stakeholders in a co-operative participatory process; a key element is therefore the use of incentives and the removal of barriers to participation. The aim of this research was to analyse past initiatives that have tried to address pollution in the Baynespruit, gain an understanding of stakeholders’ views of the problems and their relative importance, and identify economic, situational, developmental and socio-cultural barriers and incentives to participation in a multi-stakeholder process. To accomplish this, the research methodology included a number of different qualitative techniques as part of a case study approach. The main research tool used was a semi-structured interview conducted with individual stakeholders from government agencies and parastatals, industry, local residents and members of NGOs; the use of historical print media coverage and both participant and direct observation complemented the interview data. Though the details of past initiatives were difficult to trace due to the loss of institutional memory at both the agency and NGO level, they appear to have suffered from a lack of communication, accountability and inclusiveness among key stakeholders. Most of the stakeholders interviewed have an understanding of the various pollution problems affecting the Baynespruit and the consequent threat to human health, and there was general agreement that a mix of education, monitoring and enforcement was necessary to solve these problems. There was also broad support for a multi-stakeholder process, with all subjects stressing the need for action, not just discussion, as well as real engagement on the part of their fellow stakeholders. For local residents, building a network of contacts and partnerships could address many of the economic, developmental and socio-cultural barriers they face, and strengthen their effectiveness in fostering participation among other stakeholders. While barriers to industry participation in pollution reduction included problems such as a lack of consequences for polluting, and the feeling that it was ‘not their problem’, powerful economic and situational incentives, such as pressure from corporate customers and the public, remain largely unexploited. A lack of resources in the form of time, staff and equipment, as well as unsuccessful past experiences which have created a reluctance to prosecute or release information, were the major impediments preventing staff at regulatory agencies and parastatals from motivating other stakeholders to participate, though they were aware of the potential for increase effectiveness offered by participatory processes. It is hoped that by recommending ways to maximise incentives and reduce barriers, this research will assist the recently-established Baynespruit Conservancy, which is involving all interested parties in an effort to address the serious pollution problems in the stream. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Water-related disease is a problem faced by many communities in the Mngeru and Msunduzi River valleys, both those living in a rural setting, and those within thedty bounds. Treatment and management of water-related diseases such as SchistosorrUasis and Hepatitis are, however, overshadowed by the priority management of more serious illnesses such as HIV/ AIDS, and are therefore at risk of spreading unchecked. These diseases, while not often fatal, have a high morbidity and place unnecessary burden on communities and individuals that could otherwise make a positive contribution to the social and economic structure of the country. The impacts of water-related disease are felt by all water-users, including those recreational users such as fishermen, swimmers and canoeists. Following a discussion of the issues and impacts of water-related disease at both a global and local scale, the research formulated a survey of the impact of water-related disease on canoeists training and racing on the Mngeni and Msunduzi Rivers as a starting point in determining the impacts on all communities using the resource. The methods employed were twofold, a Schistosoma haematobium infection- survey was conducted using urine samples; and a questionnaire-type survey of participants in the 2006 Dusi Canoe Marathon was conducted. The results of the Schistosomiasis survey revealed that 4.07% (20/491) of the respondents were positive in this survey. Analysis of the questionnaire filled in by all participants further revealed that 73% of respondents tested positive for Schistosomiasis infection at some point in their canoeing career. The post Dusi Marathon questionnaire survey was answered by 941 (54 %) participants. A total of 588 (63 %) reported experiencing illness as a result of taking part in the 2006 event. A further 362 individuals reported having experienced water-related illness on previous Dusi Marathons, indicating that 77% of the respondents have been ill on the Dusi in this and previous years' events. In addition, water quality samples were taken during the race and were shown to be significantly higher than the guidelines for safe recreational use of water resources. The results also showed a radical overnight change in the E.coli levels following a heavy rain event on the evening before the start of the race. The research revealed that there is a serious problem of water contamination and resultant spread of disease among canoeists using the rivers for recreational and professional sport. Contamination resulting from failure of sewage processing facilities during high rainfall events and industrial discharge into the river system results in excessive and unacceptable levels of E.coli and other water-related pathogens that are a severe health risk not only to canoeists but to all communities utilising this water resource. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

A growing human population accompanied by urbanisation and industrialisation have led to over exploitation and pollution of freshwater resources and have consequently impacted on aquatic ecosystem health. The Swartkops River in the Eastern Cape of South Africa is no exception. It drains a heavily industrialised catchment which has led to deterioration of its water quality due to pollution. Integrated water resources management (IWRM) requires the concurrent sustainable use of water resources and the protection of aquatic ecosystem health. Macroinvertebrates are well known for their ability to reflect the health of the environment in which they live, thus they were used to assess anthropogenic impacts in the Swartkops River for this study. Macroinvertebrate based biomonitoring approaches, including the South African Scoring System version 5 (SASS5); a multimetric approach involving 19 metrics; Chironomidae community assessments and screening of morphological deformities in Chironomidae larvae, were applied at four selected sampling sites to assess environmental water quality in the Swartkops River. Macroinvertebrates were sampled us ing the SASS5 protocols. Chironomidae were mounted and identified as far as practically possible using available keys. Mentum, ligula, mandible, paraligula and antenna in Chironomidae larvae were screened for deformities. Physical and chemical water quality variables were measured at each of the selected sampling sites. All data were subjected to relevant statistical analyses. Of the four sites sampled during the study period, results revealed that water quality at site 1 was the least impacted with highest SASS5 scores, average score per taxa (ASPT) values, richness, diversity, equitability and Ephemeroptera –Plecoptera-Trichoptera (EPT) richness, as well as least incidences of chironomid deformities. Water quality at site 2 was considered the next least impacted with higher SASS5 scores, A SPT values, richness, diversity and equitability, and lower incidences of deformities compared to sites 3 and 4. SASS5 scores and ASPT values revealed that both sites 3 and 4 were critically modified but the multimetric analysis, Chironomidae community assessment and incidences of deformities in Chironomidae larvae indicated that site 3 is the most impacted of the four sampling sites, with least species diversity, richness, equitability and highest incidences of deformities. The study revealed the importance of multicriteria approach to environmental biomonitoring as an integrated water resources management tool, and based on the results, site 3, as the most impacted, could be prioritised for restoration intervention.

Surface water pollution is prevalent in numerous areas of central Roodepoort mainly due to gold mining activities. The surface water quality for the Bosmontspruit, Russell’s Stream and the New Canada Dam was assessed from October 2010 to March 2011. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the water were determined for 8 monitoring points and the results obtained were compared with the In-stream water quality guidelines for the Klip River catchment and the South African Water Quality Guidelines. A trend noticed throughout the sampling period was the non-compliance in the levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) and dissolved oxygen. The results indicated that concentrations of iron, aluminium, nickel, manganese and potassium were above the limit across the Bosmontspruit and Russell’s stream. There was also significant evidence of excessive faecal coliform and ammonium pollution in the Bosmontspruit. During the monitoring period it was noted that water from these streams were utilised for crop irrigation, bathing, livestock and human consumption and may pose a health hazard due to poor water quality. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Science)

Ph.D. / The Crocodile River catchment, in Mpumalanga, is one the most intensively used catchments in South Africa. The large number of intensively cultivated crops grown in the middle and lower subcatchments; industrial discharges; highly intensive irrigation; and extensive areas of exotic afforestation in the upper and middle sub-catchments has dramatically changed land use patterns within the catchment. The Middle Crocodile River sub-catchment is also impacted by intensive urbanisation; around Nelspruit, KaNyamazane and Matsulu. The Kaap River sub-catchment has been intensively mined for minerals and the impacts of these mining operations are still reflected in the water quality of streams and rivers in this sub-catchment. The downstream uses of the Crocodile River's water quality are the aquatic ecosystem, the Kruger National Park (as the river is the southern boundary of the park) and Mozambique (international obligations). The Crocodile River catchment supports one of the richest fish species diversities in South Africa. It is therefore important to determine the impacts of these land use activities on the fish populations and the potential human health risks if fish are consumed. In the present study data from five gauging stations for each of the main tributaries draining the five sub-catchments (the Upper, Middle and Lower Crocodile River, Kaap and Elands Rivers) were used. The water quality and quantity was determined from Department of Water Affairs and Forestry's (DWAF) National Hydrological Chemical Data Bank. Assessments of water quality (chemical, physical), sediment characteristics, and fish biological characteristics were undertaken at each of the chosen sampling sites. Water and fish samples were collected seasonally on ten sampling trips during the study period, June 1989 to September 1992. Eleven species of fish were collected, by means of gill and seine nets, at eight sites. The biological characteristics of the larger fish captured were measured and tissue (gills, liver, muscle, intestine, ovaries, testes and abdominal fat) samples were collected. These samples were analysed for eleven metals and Pyrethroid, Carbamate, Organochlorine, Organophosphate and Triazine pesticides. Sediment core samples were collected and determinations made of particle size, percentage organics, metals and pesticides. Standard methods were used for the determination of .the metal and pesticide concentrations in the water, sediment and fish tissues. The pesticide use per crop for South Africa was determined from a data-base. This data was used to determine the potential pesticide runoff from the different crops in the sub-catchments and to compare with the sediment and fish tissue levels recorded. The water quality status of the Crocodile River catchment is impacted by a variety of diffuse and point sources of pollution. The water quality indicated that diffuse sources of pollution originated from afforestation in the Upper, Middle and Kaap River sub-catchments; current and abandoned mining activities in the Kaap River sub-catchment; runoff from irrigated lands in the Middle, Lower and Kaap River sub-catchments; and wastes from industrial activities in the Elands and Middle sub-catchments. Point sources of pollution in the Crocodile River include ndustrial and waste water treatment works discharges mainly in the Middle sub-catchment.