O Eucalyptus é o gênero florestal mais plantado no Brasil (5,6 milhões de hectares) e o Estado de São Paulo apresenta a segunda maior área plantada do país, com pouco mais de 970 mil hectares. O manejo intensivo das florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus, caracterizado pela alta produtividade, rápido crescimento e ciclos curtos de rotação, bem como a expansão do setor florestal, têm causado preocupações em relação aos efeitos desses plantios sobre a quantidade e a qualidade dos recursos hídricos. Diante desse contexto, esta tese foi desenvolvida com o objetivo de contribuir com o aprofundamento do conhecimento sobre os efeitos do manejo de florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus sobre os recursos hídricos. Para tanto, o segundo capítulo sintetiza os resultados de estudos já desenvolvidos no Brasil e que envolveram a mensuração de componentes do balanço hídrico em florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus e em diferentes biomas brasileiros, destacando os resultados dos estudos realizados em microbacias hidrográficas cobertas por florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus. No terceiro capítulo foram avaliados os efeitos da colheita florestal e do crescimento de florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus sobre o regime hidrológico de quatro microbacias hidrográficas e, no quarto capítulo, os efeitos sobre a qualidade da água e a exportação de nutrientes e sólidos suspensos. A revisão demonstrou que existem diferenças entre florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus e vegetação nativa, principalmente em relação aos valores anuais de rendimento hídrico (razão entre deflúvio e precipitação - Q:P), os quais tendem a diminuir, em microbacias hidrográficas, entre o primeiro e sétimo ano de idade das florestas plantadas. Os resultados demonstraram a existência de efeitos do manejo florestal como o aumento do rendimento hídrico (34%), do índice de escoamento base (4%) e do coeficiente de escoamento (21%) no primeiro ano depois da colheita (DC1) em relação ao ano anterior à colheita (AC), e a diminuição em 10%, 7% e 2%, respectivamente, no quarto ano depois da colheita (DC4) em relação ao ano DC1; o aumento da concentração de sólidos suspensos no ano DC1 em relação ao ano AC e a diminuição significativa dessas concentrações no ano DC4 em todas as microbacias estudadas; e o aumento das exportações de nutrientes e sólidos suspensos no ano DC1 acompanhando o aumento do rendimento hídrico e a diminuição das exportações no ano DC4 acompanhando a diminuição do rendimento hídrico. Em todas as escalas de análise do regime hidrológico (anual, sazonal e diária) foram observadas dinâmicas individuais nas microbacias hidrográficas diferentes daquelas observadas nos valores médios, demonstrando que outros fatores como, por exemplo, a precipitação, o tipo de solos e a declividade média, também podem influenciar o regime hidrológico além do manejo florestal. Esses efeitos demonstram que existe relação entre o manejo florestal e os recursos hídricos, mas não é possível afirmar que eles comprometem a quantidade e a qualidade da água. No entanto a conjunção entre fatores climáticos, características locais e as fases do manejo florestal pode agravar ou atenuar os efeitos sobre a quantidade e a qualidade da água, devendo esses aspectos serem observados nos planos de manejo florestal. / Eucalyptus is the most planted forest genus in Brazil (5.6 million hectares) and the State of São Paulo has the second largest planted area in the country, with over 970,000 hectares. The intensive management of forest plantations of Eucalyptus, characterized by high productivity, rapid growth and short rotation cycles, as well as the expansion of the forest sector, have caused concerns about the effects of these plantations on the quantity and quality of water resources. In this context, this thesis has been developed in order to contribute to the deepening of knowledge about the effects of Eucalyptus forest plantations management on water resources. Therefore, the second chapter summarizes the results of studies already developed in Brazil involving the measurement of water balance components in Eucalyptus plantations in different biomes, highlighting the results of studies in catchments covered by Eucalyptus forest plantations. In the third chapter, we evaluated the effects of Eucalyptus plantations harvesting and growth on hydrological regime of four catchments. In the fourth chapter, we evaluate effects on water quality and nutrient and suspended solids exports. The review has shown that there are differences between Eucalyptus forest plantations and native vegetation, especially in relation to annual values of discharge/precipitation ratio, which tend to decrease in catchments, between the first and seventh year on planted forests. The results demonstrated the existence of effects due to forest management such as increase in discharge/precipitation ratio (34%), base flow index (4%) and quick flow/precipitation ratio (21%), in the first year after harvest (DC1) in relation to the previous year before harvest (AC), and decreased by 10%, 7% and 2%, respectively, in the fourth year after harvest (DC4) compared to the DC1 year; concentration of suspended solids in DC1 year in relation to AC year and a significant decrease in these concentrations in DC4 year in all studied catchments; and the increase in nutrient exportation and suspended solids in DC1 year with increase in discharge/precipitation ratio and decrease in exports in the year DC4, accompanied by the decrease in discharge/precipitation ratio. In all scales of hydrological regimes (annual, seasonal and daily), individual dynamics were observed in different catchments from those observed in the mean values, demonstrating thus that other factors such as, for example, precipitation, soil type and the average slope, can also influence hydrological regime beyond forest management. These effects show that there is a relationship between forest management and water resources, but it is not possible to say that they compromise water quantity and quality. However, the conjunction of climatic factors, local conditions and stages of forest management can aggravate or mitigate the effects on water quantity and quality, and thus, such aspects should be observed in forest management plans.

As florestas são reconhecidas por oferecerem diversos serviços ecossistêmicos aos seres humanos, dentre eles se destaca sua capacidade de regulação e provisão de água. Florestas plantadas, cultivadas principalmente para fins madeireiros, apesar de atenderem a demanda por produtos pela sua alta produtividade, nem sempre conseguem manter os serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados aos recursos hídricos. As florestas plantadas de eucalipto, atualmente, compõem paisagens homogêneas, com grandes extensões de plantios com mesma idade. Um bom planejamento das áreas com florestas plantadas e o seu manejo correto poderiam reduzir os trade-offs dessa cultura. Dessa forma, nesse estudo buscou-se compreender o efeito da composição da microbacia hidrográfica sobre o regime hidrológico e a qualidade da água. Três microbacias hidrográficas tiveram seu regime hidrológico e sua qualidade da água monitorada durante três anos hídricos, de setembro de 2013 a agosto de 2016. As microbacias localizam-se na Estação Experimental de Ciências Florestais de Itatinga, ESALQ/USP. A microbacia 1 apresenta manejo em mosaico de idades e espécies, enquanto as microbacias 2 e 3 apresentam manejo convencional de eucalipto. As microbacias 2 e 3 apresentam 57% e 80%, respectivamente, de suas áreas ocupadas por florestas plantadas de eucalipto, e 39% e 12% de sua área, respectivamente, por floresta nativa. As microbacias 2 e 3 foram utilizadas para avaliar o efeito da proporção de uso do solo de florestas plantadas e nativas, e as microbacias 1 e 3 para verificar diferenças entre o manejo em mosaico e o manejo convencional. Durante o período de estudo, houve dois anos com precipitações atípicas. As microbacias 2 e 3 apresentaram índices similares do regime hidrológico, porém a microbacia 3 se demonstrou mais vulnerável a falta de precipitação em relação à microbacia 2. Quanto à qualidade da água, as microbacias 2 e 3 se diferenciaram principalmente quanto à exportação de sólidos em suspensão onde a maior faixa de vegetação nativa na microbacia 2 auxiliou na manutenção da qualidade da água. A microbacia 1 apresentou regime hidrológico mais estável do que a microbacia 3, mesmo sob anos atípicos, demonstrando que o manejo em mosaico favorece a estabilidade do regime hidrológico. Do mesmo modo, a microbacia 1 apresentou uma maior estabilidade na qualidade da água em relação à microbacia 3. Os resultados demonstraram que apesar de pequenas diferenças no regime hidrológico à presença de uma maior faixa de vegetação ripária traz benefícios à qualidade da água. O manejo em mosaico se demonstrou mais adequado na regulação do regime hidrológico e da qualidade de água em relação ao manejo convencional de florestas plantadas de eucalipto. / Forests are recognized for offering a variety of ecosystem services to humans, including their ability to regulate and provide water. Forest plantations, grown mainly for timber purposes, despite meeting the demand for wood products through their high productivity, are not always able to maintain ecosystem services related to water resources. Currently, eucalyptus planted forests compose homogeneous landscapes, with large extensions of plantations with the same age. A good planning and management of the forest plantation areas could reduce tradeoffs. Thus, this study aims to understand the effect of catchment landscape composition on the hydrological regime and water quality. Three catchments had their hydrological regime and water quality monitored during three water years, from September 2013 to August 2016. The catchments are located at the Experimental Station of Forest Sciences of Itatinga, ESALQ/USP. Catchment 1 presents mosaic management of ages and species, while catchment 2 and 3 present conventional management of eucalyptus forest. Catchments 2 and 3 present 57% and 80%, respectively, of their landuse occupied by eucalyptus plantations, and 39% and 12%, respectively, by native forest. Catchments 2 and 3 were monitored to evaluate the effect of the proportion of landuse between planted forest and native vegetation and catchments 1 and 3 to verify differences between mosaic and conventional management. During the study period, there were two years with atypical precipitations. Catchments 2 and 3 present similar indices of the hydrological regime, but catchment 3 was more vulnerable to dry in relation to catchment 2. Whilst for water quality, catchments 2 and 3 differed mainly in relation to the export of solids, where the largest width of native vegetation in catchment 2 assists in the maintenance of water quality. Catchment 1 presented a more stable hydrological regime than catchment 3, even under atypical years, demonstrating that mosaic management favors the stability of the hydrological regime. Likewise, catchment 1 presented greater stability in water quality in relation to catchments 3. The results showed besides some differences in the hydrological regimes, the presence of a greater proportion of native forest brings benefits to water quality. The mosaic management was shown to be more efficient in the regulation of hydrological regime and water quality in relation to the conventional management of eucalypt planted forests.

O Eucalyptus é o gênero florestal mais plantado no Brasil (5,6 milhões de hectares) e o Estado de São Paulo apresenta a segunda maior área plantada do país, com pouco mais de 970 mil hectares. O manejo intensivo das florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus, caracterizado pela alta produtividade, rápido crescimento e ciclos curtos de rotação, bem como a expansão do setor florestal, têm causado preocupações em relação aos efeitos desses plantios sobre a quantidade e a qualidade dos recursos hídricos. Diante desse contexto, esta tese foi desenvolvida com o objetivo de contribuir com o aprofundamento do conhecimento sobre os efeitos do manejo de florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus sobre os recursos hídricos. Para tanto, o segundo capítulo sintetiza os resultados de estudos já desenvolvidos no Brasil e que envolveram a mensuração de componentes do balanço hídrico em florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus e em diferentes biomas brasileiros, destacando os resultados dos estudos realizados em microbacias hidrográficas cobertas por florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus. No terceiro capítulo foram avaliados os efeitos da colheita florestal e do crescimento de florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus sobre o regime hidrológico de quatro microbacias hidrográficas e, no quarto capítulo, os efeitos sobre a qualidade da água e a exportação de nutrientes e sólidos suspensos. A revisão demonstrou que existem diferenças entre florestas plantadas de Eucalyptus e vegetação nativa, principalmente em relação aos valores anuais de rendimento hídrico (razão entre deflúvio e precipitação - Q:P), os quais tendem a diminuir, em microbacias hidrográficas, entre o primeiro e sétimo ano de idade das florestas plantadas. Os resultados demonstraram a existência de efeitos do manejo florestal como o aumento do rendimento hídrico (34%), do índice de escoamento base (4%) e do coeficiente de escoamento (21%) no primeiro ano depois da colheita (DC1) em relação ao ano anterior à colheita (AC), e a diminuição em 10%, 7% e 2%, respectivamente, no quarto ano depois da colheita (DC4) em relação ao ano DC1; o aumento da concentração de sólidos suspensos no ano DC1 em relação ao ano AC e a diminuição significativa dessas concentrações no ano DC4 em todas as microbacias estudadas; e o aumento das exportações de nutrientes e sólidos suspensos no ano DC1 acompanhando o aumento do rendimento hídrico e a diminuição das exportações no ano DC4 acompanhando a diminuição do rendimento hídrico. Em todas as escalas de análise do regime hidrológico (anual, sazonal e diária) foram observadas dinâmicas individuais nas microbacias hidrográficas diferentes daquelas observadas nos valores médios, demonstrando que outros fatores como, por exemplo, a precipitação, o tipo de solos e a declividade média, também podem influenciar o regime hidrológico além do manejo florestal. Esses efeitos demonstram que existe relação entre o manejo florestal e os recursos hídricos, mas não é possível afirmar que eles comprometem a quantidade e a qualidade da água. No entanto a conjunção entre fatores climáticos, características locais e as fases do manejo florestal pode agravar ou atenuar os efeitos sobre a quantidade e a qualidade da água, devendo esses aspectos serem observados nos planos de manejo florestal. / Eucalyptus is the most planted forest genus in Brazil (5.6 million hectares) and the State of São Paulo has the second largest planted area in the country, with over 970,000 hectares. The intensive management of forest plantations of Eucalyptus, characterized by high productivity, rapid growth and short rotation cycles, as well as the expansion of the forest sector, have caused concerns about the effects of these plantations on the quantity and quality of water resources. In this context, this thesis has been developed in order to contribute to the deepening of knowledge about the effects of Eucalyptus forest plantations management on water resources. Therefore, the second chapter summarizes the results of studies already developed in Brazil involving the measurement of water balance components in Eucalyptus plantations in different biomes, highlighting the results of studies in catchments covered by Eucalyptus forest plantations. In the third chapter, we evaluated the effects of Eucalyptus plantations harvesting and growth on hydrological regime of four catchments. In the fourth chapter, we evaluate effects on water quality and nutrient and suspended solids exports. The review has shown that there are differences between Eucalyptus forest plantations and native vegetation, especially in relation to annual values of discharge/precipitation ratio, which tend to decrease in catchments, between the first and seventh year on planted forests. The results demonstrated the existence of effects due to forest management such as increase in discharge/precipitation ratio (34%), base flow index (4%) and quick flow/precipitation ratio (21%), in the first year after harvest (DC1) in relation to the previous year before harvest (AC), and decreased by 10%, 7% and 2%, respectively, in the fourth year after harvest (DC4) compared to the DC1 year; concentration of suspended solids in DC1 year in relation to AC year and a significant decrease in these concentrations in DC4 year in all studied catchments; and the increase in nutrient exportation and suspended solids in DC1 year with increase in discharge/precipitation ratio and decrease in exports in the year DC4, accompanied by the decrease in discharge/precipitation ratio. In all scales of hydrological regimes (annual, seasonal and daily), individual dynamics were observed in different catchments from those observed in the mean values, demonstrating thus that other factors such as, for example, precipitation, soil type and the average slope, can also influence hydrological regime beyond forest management. These effects show that there is a relationship between forest management and water resources, but it is not possible to say that they compromise water quantity and quality. However, the conjunction of climatic factors, local conditions and stages of forest management can aggravate or mitigate the effects on water quantity and quality, and thus, such aspects should be observed in forest management plans.

As florestas são reconhecidas por oferecerem diversos serviços ecossistêmicos aos seres humanos, dentre eles se destaca sua capacidade de regulação e provisão de água. Florestas plantadas, cultivadas principalmente para fins madeireiros, apesar de atenderem a demanda por produtos pela sua alta produtividade, nem sempre conseguem manter os serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados aos recursos hídricos. As florestas plantadas de eucalipto, atualmente, compõem paisagens homogêneas, com grandes extensões de plantios com mesma idade. Um bom planejamento das áreas com florestas plantadas e o seu manejo correto poderiam reduzir os trade-offs dessa cultura. Dessa forma, nesse estudo buscou-se compreender o efeito da composição da microbacia hidrográfica sobre o regime hidrológico e a qualidade da água. Três microbacias hidrográficas tiveram seu regime hidrológico e sua qualidade da água monitorada durante três anos hídricos, de setembro de 2013 a agosto de 2016. As microbacias localizam-se na Estação Experimental de Ciências Florestais de Itatinga, ESALQ/USP. A microbacia 1 apresenta manejo em mosaico de idades e espécies, enquanto as microbacias 2 e 3 apresentam manejo convencional de eucalipto. As microbacias 2 e 3 apresentam 57% e 80%, respectivamente, de suas áreas ocupadas por florestas plantadas de eucalipto, e 39% e 12% de sua área, respectivamente, por floresta nativa. As microbacias 2 e 3 foram utilizadas para avaliar o efeito da proporção de uso do solo de florestas plantadas e nativas, e as microbacias 1 e 3 para verificar diferenças entre o manejo em mosaico e o manejo convencional. Durante o período de estudo, houve dois anos com precipitações atípicas. As microbacias 2 e 3 apresentaram índices similares do regime hidrológico, porém a microbacia 3 se demonstrou mais vulnerável a falta de precipitação em relação à microbacia 2. Quanto à qualidade da água, as microbacias 2 e 3 se diferenciaram principalmente quanto à exportação de sólidos em suspensão onde a maior faixa de vegetação nativa na microbacia 2 auxiliou na manutenção da qualidade da água. A microbacia 1 apresentou regime hidrológico mais estável do que a microbacia 3, mesmo sob anos atípicos, demonstrando que o manejo em mosaico favorece a estabilidade do regime hidrológico. Do mesmo modo, a microbacia 1 apresentou uma maior estabilidade na qualidade da água em relação à microbacia 3. Os resultados demonstraram que apesar de pequenas diferenças no regime hidrológico à presença de uma maior faixa de vegetação ripária traz benefícios à qualidade da água. O manejo em mosaico se demonstrou mais adequado na regulação do regime hidrológico e da qualidade de água em relação ao manejo convencional de florestas plantadas de eucalipto. / Forests are recognized for offering a variety of ecosystem services to humans, including their ability to regulate and provide water. Forest plantations, grown mainly for timber purposes, despite meeting the demand for wood products through their high productivity, are not always able to maintain ecosystem services related to water resources. Currently, eucalyptus planted forests compose homogeneous landscapes, with large extensions of plantations with the same age. A good planning and management of the forest plantation areas could reduce tradeoffs. Thus, this study aims to understand the effect of catchment landscape composition on the hydrological regime and water quality. Three catchments had their hydrological regime and water quality monitored during three water years, from September 2013 to August 2016. The catchments are located at the Experimental Station of Forest Sciences of Itatinga, ESALQ/USP. Catchment 1 presents mosaic management of ages and species, while catchment 2 and 3 present conventional management of eucalyptus forest. Catchments 2 and 3 present 57% and 80%, respectively, of their landuse occupied by eucalyptus plantations, and 39% and 12%, respectively, by native forest. Catchments 2 and 3 were monitored to evaluate the effect of the proportion of landuse between planted forest and native vegetation and catchments 1 and 3 to verify differences between mosaic and conventional management. During the study period, there were two years with atypical precipitations. Catchments 2 and 3 present similar indices of the hydrological regime, but catchment 3 was more vulnerable to dry in relation to catchment 2. Whilst for water quality, catchments 2 and 3 differed mainly in relation to the export of solids, where the largest width of native vegetation in catchment 2 assists in the maintenance of water quality. Catchment 1 presented a more stable hydrological regime than catchment 3, even under atypical years, demonstrating that mosaic management favors the stability of the hydrological regime. Likewise, catchment 1 presented greater stability in water quality in relation to catchments 3. The results showed besides some differences in the hydrological regimes, the presence of a greater proportion of native forest brings benefits to water quality. The mosaic management was shown to be more efficient in the regulation of hydrological regime and water quality in relation to the conventional management of eucalypt planted forests.

Forecasted changes to climate and land use were used to model variations in the streamflow characteristics of Occoquan watershed and water quality in the Occoquan reservoir. The combination of these two driving forces has created four themes and an integrated complexly-linked watershed-reservoir model was used to run the simulations. Two emission scenarios from the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), along with four General Circulation Models (GCMs) by using two statistical downscaling methods, were applied to drive the Hydrological Simulation Program - Fortran (HSPF) and CE-QUAL-W2 (W2) in two future time periods (2046-2065 and 2081-2100). Incorporation of these factors yielded 68 simulation models which were compared with historical streamflow and water quality data from the late 20th century. Climate change is projected to increase surface air temperature and precipitation depth in the study area in the future. Using climate change only, an increase in high and median flows and decrease in low flows are projected. Changes in flow characteristics are more pronounced when only future land use changes are considered, with increases in high, median and low flows. Under the joint examination of the driving forces, an amplifying effect on the high flows and median flows observed. In contrast, climate change is projected to dampen the extreme increases in the low flows created by the land use change. Surface water temperatures are projected to increase as a result of climate change in the Occoquan reservoir, while these changes are not very noticeable under the effect of land use change only. It is expected that higher water temperatures will promote decreased oxygen solubility and greater heterotrophy. Moreover, longer anoxic conditions are projected at the bottom of the reservoir. Results indicate that higher water temperature will increase the denitrifying capacity of the reservoir, especially during summer months, further reducing the nitrate concentration in the reservoir. / PHD / Water resources managers are facing a new set of challenges of developing strategies to address the regional impacts of climate change and land use change, especially in metropolitan areas. Simulating climate change and land use change scenarios can shed light on mitigation and adaption approaches for water resources management as well as future designs (for example, infrastructure, agriculture, irrigation, etc. among other sectors). The focus of this study is the Occoquan watershed with an area of 1530 km² (590 square miles) which includes the 1700-acre Occoquan reservoir that yields about 40% of the drinking water supply of near 2.0 million residents in northern Virginia. The Occoquan watershed located approximately 40 km to the southwest of Washington, D.C. and is situated in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United Sates with four distinct seasons and is part of a bigger watershed known as the Potomac River Watershed. The primary aim of this research is to provide an improved, quantitative understanding of the potential impacts of climate change and land use change on the Occoquan watershed. The findings of this research can benefit future water supply reliability and mitigation strategies in the study area considering this watershed’s essential role as a water supplier in northern Virginia.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Lee R. Skabelund / Stormwater management is typically approached from different perspectives by practicing professionals. As such, stormwater planning/design is not always completed as a multi-disciplinary coalition of experts using holistic and synergistic methods. For a number of years, engineers and design professionals, particularly landscape architects, have been employing various strategies and techniques to address on-site stormwater management in terms of water quality and quantity. There is increasing awareness that in order to create solutions that are effective over both the short and long-term a landscape architect’s approach needs to account for the health, safety and welfare perspectives carried by engineers, the unique aspects of particular project sites, their surroundings and bio-regional context, as well as the perceptions of clients, other key stakeholders, and the broader public. This research investigates the various criteria integral to developing an analytic framework for ecologically-appropriate stormwater planning/design (Sustainable Stormwater Evaluation and Site Assessment or SSWESA). SSWESA is proposed as a type of decision-tree for site analysis of sustainable systems pertaining to stormwater. Using the SSWESA process is expected to help researchers and professionals make better planning and design decisions as they select and implement appropriate best management practices (BMPs) for a given site and context. My intent in developing SSWESA is to help designers assess existing and potential stormwater functions at the site scale in order to promote sustainable planning and design based upon the important principle: “First, do no harm”. It is also my intent to promote further research related to sustainability by providing references and sources from experts in the various fields related to ecologically-based stormwater management. A review of the literature related to ecological factors relevant to low impact stormwater management assisted in the development and refinement of the criteria for stormwater assessment and evaluation. In this report, the SSWESA framework is tested on a public school property in Manhattan, Kansas to demonstrate how the framework is applied and to understand the questions and issues that arise from its use.

Atualmente a água é o recurso mais limitante para o desenvolvimento urbano, industrial e principalmente agrícola devido à constante contaminação em função da falta de planejamento e uso inadequado dos recursos hídricos pela humanidade. Assim o presente trabalho teve o objetivo de estudar o impacto ambiental da irrigação nos recursos hídricos da microbacia hidrográfica do ribeirão dos Marins e testar a capacidade do modelo hidrológico MIKE SHE em pequenas áreas irrigadas da microbacia e conseqüentemente detectar problemas relacionados à irrigação e a falta de manejo da água nessas áreas. Avaliou-se a qualidade da água de irrigação utilizada na produção de hortaliças; a qualidade da irrigação praticada pelos produtores, a quantidade de água na microbacia hidrográfica e simulou-se a área irrigada da microbacia. Os parâmetros de qualidade de água analisados foram: sedimentos em suspensão, pH, condutividade elétrica, alcalinidade, turbidez, potássio, cálcio, magnésio, cobre, ferro, manganês, zinco, sódio, fósforo, sulfato, cloreto, nitrogênio amoniacal e nitrato, durante 10 meses. A qualidade da irrigação foi avaliada através do manejo da irrigação via tensiômetros, instalados em duas propriedades agrícolas e em duas profundidades, e avaliação do coeficiente de uniformidade de Christiansen (CUC) foi feito em quatro propriedades agrícolas. A avaliação do impacto ambiental foi feito por meio dos indicadores de qualidade da água e do CUC. Os dados coletados e avaliados permitiram concluir que a agricultura irrigada provoca pouco impacto na microbacia hidrográfica. De acordo com as classificações de Ayers e Westcot e USDA a água pode ser considerada boa para ser utilizada na agricultura. Observou-se que a umidade do solo no período amostrado ficou próxima da saturação. O uso do modelo para a simulação da área irrigada permitiu economia de água quando o manejo da irrigação foi utilizado. / Nowadays the water is the most limiting resource to the urban, industrial and agricultural development due to constant contamination and inadequate water use by the mankind. Then this work aimed to study the environmental impact of irrigation at the Marins stream watershed and to check the ability of the model MIKE SHE in small irrigated area, consequently, to detect problems related with irrigation operations at the small watershed. It were evaluated the water quality used in the horticultural production, the irrigation quality practiced by the farmers, water quantity in the watershed and simulation was done for the irrigated area. The parameters analyzed were physicals and chemicals: suspense sediments, pH, electric conductivity, alkalinity, turbidity, potassium, calcium, magnesium, cupper, iron, manganese, zinc, sodium, phosphorus, sulfate, chlorine, ammonia nitrogen, and nitrate, during 10 months. The irrigation quality was evaluated through the irrigation management by tensiometers installed in two properties and two depths and by the Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CUC) measured in four properties. The environmental impact of irrigation was made by the water quality indicators and the CUC. The results permitted to conclude that irrigated agricultural causes few impact at the Marins stream watershed. The water showed a acceptable quality when compared with the classification proposed by Ayers & Westcot and USDA to irrigation. It was observed that the soil wet was near the saturation. The model allowed to save water when water management was used.

Understanding the extent to which human activities impact surface water resources has become increasingly important as both human population growth and related landscape changes impact water quality and quantity across varying geographical scales. Skypark, Santa’s Village is a 233.76-acre tourism-based outdoor recreation area located in Skyforest, California residing within the San Bernardino National Forest. The park is situated at Hooks Creek, the headwaters of the Mojave River Watershed, and is characterized by a diverse landscape that includes forest cover and human development, including impervious surfaces, a restored meadow, and recreational trails. In 2016, Hencks Meadow was considered degraded by human activity and restored by the Natural Resources Conservation Services (NRCS) using best management practices (BMPs) to manage stormwater runoff and mitigate pollutants entering recreational downstream surface water. Three BMP detention basins were constructed to store and improve water quality from stormwater runoff. The purpose of this study is to observe the extent to which the engineered BMP detention basins design were effective in mitigating stormwater pollution from entering Hooks Creek. Over a six to eight month period (January to August), ponds were tested in situ bi-weekly for temperature (ºC), dissolved oxygen (mg/L), pH, turbidity (NTU), conductivity (µS/cm), nitrate (mg/L), and ammonium (mg/L), with additional laboratory tests for total suspended solids (mg/L), total dissolved solids (mg/L), chemical oxygen demand (mg/L), total coliform (MPN/100mL), Escherichia coli (MPN/100mL), and trace metals (µg/L). The results of this study support that the BMP design is improving surface stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces before it enters Hooks Creek. Findings could also promote the design and implementation of stormwater BMP detention basins at other site locations where water degradation is evident. Furthermore, this research can be used to promote the necessary improvement of water quality and quantity on a widespread geographical scale.

Without a comprehensive understanding of anthropogenic pressures on the water environment, it is difficult to develop effective and efficient strategies to support water management in a proactive way. A broader systems perspective and expanded information systems are therefore essential to aid in systematically exploring interlinks between socioeconomic activities and impaired waters at an appropriate scale. This thesis examined the root causes of human-induced water problems, taking the socioeconomic sector into account and using systems thinking and life cycle thinking as the two main methods. The European DPSIR (Drivers-Pressures-State of the Environment-Impacts-Responses) framework was also used as a basis for discussing two kinds of approaches to water management, namely state/impacts-oriented and pressure-oriented. The results indicate that current water management approaches are mainly state/impacts-oriented. The state/impacts-oriented approach is mainly based on observed pollutants in environmental monitoring and/or on biodiversity changes in ecological monitoring. Employing this approach, the main concern is hydrophysical and biogeochemical changes in the water environment and the end result is reactive responses to combat water problems. As a response, a pressure-oriented approach, derived from a DPR (Drivers-Pressures-Responses) model, was developed to aid in alleviating/avoiding human-induced pressures on the water environment. From a principal perspective, this approach could lead to proactive water-centric policy and decision making and the derivation of pressure-oriented information systems. The underlying principle of the DPR approach is that many root causes of human-induced water problems are closely related to anthroposphere metabolism. An industrial ecology (IE) perspective, based on the principle of mass/material balance, was also introduced to trace water flows in the human-oriented water system and to account for emissions/wastes discharged into the natural water system. This IE-based perspective should be used as part of the basis for developing pressure-oriented monitoring and assessing impacts of human-induced pressures on recipient waters. While demonstrating the use of the pressure-oriented approach, two conceptual frameworks were developed, for water quantity and water quality analysis, respectively. These two frameworks could help motivate decision makers to consider water problems in a broader socioeconomic and environment context. Thus they should be the first step in making a broader systems analysis in any given river basin, regarding setting systems boundary and identifying data availability. In this context, a combined hydrological and administrative boundary is suggested to monitor anthropogenic processes and organise socioeconomic activity statistics. / QC 20120515

O presente trabalho teve como o objetivo o estudo das condições hidrológicas, higiênicas e sanitárias no distrito de Funhalouro, localizada na província de Inhambane, em Moçambique. Esse distrito caracteriza-se por ser rural com clima semi-árido e nele residem cerca de 37.856 habitantes correspondentes a 8058 famílias com uma densidade populacional de 2,78 habitante/km². O abastecimento de água no local de estudo é precário. Com relação a fonte de água para o consumo, 53,9% das famílias utilizam poços a céu aberto, 37,5% poços protegidos sem qualquer tipo de tratamento e os restantes consomem água das lagoas existentes, fontanários e cisternas. Aliado a tal, levantamentos realizados apontaram que 78% destes agregados familiares não possuem sequer uma latrina, 18,1% possuem uma latrina tradicional não melhorada e o restante usam a latrina melhorada. Os habitantes que não possuem latrinas em suas moradias compartilham as mesmas com os moradores que as possuem, ou então, praticam o fecalismo a céu aberto. O diagnóstico mostra ainda que a população consome água fora dos padrões estabelecidos pela OMS e pela legislação moçambicana. Para agravar, no distrito de Funhalouro os resíduos sólidos são enterrados ou queimados nas próprias casas. A falta de higiene também é característica em muitas casas e em algumas fontes de água do distrito de Funhalouro. O consumo da água imprópria e as condições insalubres são algumas das causas de várias doenças na região, principalmente as diarréias e a malária, sendo a última a principal causa de morte em Moçambique. Para superar todos os entraves à melhoria das condições sanitárias e de vida, o presente trabalho propôs sistemas alternativos de tratamento de águas com eficiência e baixo custo, considerados não convencionais ou simplificados, como o uso da moringa, desinfecção solar (SODIS), cloração e fervura. Sugeriu-se também, a construção de latrinas tradicionais melhoradas, tecnologias simples de coleta de água das chuvas e educação ambiental e sanitária. As sugestões propostas consideram a riqueza, a diversidade e, principalmente, a tradição do povo em estudo . O trabalho recomendou ainda uma cooperação, na qual participem instituições envolvidas na gestão de recursos hídricos, ONGs, instituições religiosas e comunidade local, e que a teoria política seja aplicada. / This work aimed at studying the hydrologic, hygiene and sanitation conditions in the district of Funhalouro, located in Inhambane province, Mozambique. This is a rural district characterized by semi-arid climate, with approximately 37,856 inhabitants, 8058 households and a population density of 2.78 inhabitants /km ². The water supply in the area of study is poor. Water consumption covers 53.9% of households that use open wells, 37.5% use protected wells without treatment of any king and the remaining population consumes water from the existing ponds, fountains and cisterns. Allied to this, surveys showed that 78% of these households do not even have a latrine, 18.1% have an unimproved latrine and the remaining population uses improved latrines. People who do not have latrines in their homes share the same latrines with those who have, or defecate in the open air. The diagnosis also shows that the population consumes water that is out of the standards set by WHO and the Mozambican legislation. To make it worse, the district of Funhalouro lacks any rain water drainage system and solid waste is buried or burned in their homes. The lack of hygiene is also feature in many homes and in some water sources in the district of Funhalouro. The consumption of unsafe water and the unsanitary conditions are some of the causes of various diseases in the region, especially diarrhea and malaria, the latter being the leading cause of death in Mozambique. To overcome all obstacles to the improvement of health and living conditions, this study proposed highly efficient and low cost alternative systems of water treatment considered as unconventional or simplified, by using moringa, solar disinfection (SODIS), chlorination and boiling. It was also suggested the construction of improved traditional latrines, simple technologies for water collection and environmental and health education. The proposed suggestions were designed to be in line with the richness, diversity, and especially the tradition of the people under study. The study also recommended further cooperation, with participation of institutions engaged in water resources management, NGOs, religious institutions and local community, and applying the political theory.