Friction Stir Welding (FSW) was used to perform Bead on Plate (BOP) welds on 6061-T6511 aluminum extrusions. Using a DOE approach, tool rotation speed, clamp spacing, and clamping force were altered to ascertain their effects on distortion in the welded panels. Mechanical forces were monitored during the weld process. Both linear and out of plane distortion were measured on the welded extrusions. The Vickers hardness of the weld nugget was measured. The effect of each parameter on weld distortion was discovered and the mechanism of this link was suggested.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an emerging solid state welding process. It has been a proven method for welding high strength aluminium alloys which were previously not recommended for conventional fusion welding. Since the invention of the process by The Welding Institute, United Kingdom, in 1991, a number of studies have been conducted on the material flow, microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of friction stir welds. However, there is not enough conceptual background available on FSW process for physical understanding of the mechanism of weld formation. In addition to that, FSW welds of high strength precipitation hardenable aluminium alloys suffer from reduced joint efficiency due to overaging in the heat affected zone. In the present investigation, experimental analysis has been carried out to understand the mechanism of weld formation and parameter optimization for aluminium alloys 7020-T6 and 6061-T6. For this purpose the investigations have been made on both the process aspects and the material aspects. The process aspects are analyzed with the objective of learning the mechanism to produce defect free welds. For this purpose experiments have been carried out to analyze the effect of FSW parameters, material flow and the frictional characteristics between the tool and base metal. Preliminary experiments are conducted on aluminium alloy 7020-T6 with different tool geometries to analyze the interaction of the tool with the base metal using a knee-type vertical milling machine. Then, the tool geometry which produced defect-free weld is used for further experimentation. The role of tool pin, shoulder and axial load on the formation of defect free weld is analyzed in an innovative experiment, where the tool and base metal interaction is continuously increased by continuously increasing the interference between the tool and base metal. In another experiment the initial abutting interface position with respect to the tool is continuously varied to study the interaction of the tool with the initial interface and to find the positional information where the initial interface is completely eliminated. Further, the tool metal interface condition is studied using a specially designed tribological experiment which simulates the FSW condition. From the base metal point of view, due to the strain, strain rate and temperature imposed on the base metal during the process, the microstructure is altered. In precipitation hardenable aluminium alloys the strengthening precipitates are dissolved or overaged in the weld region depending on the peak temperature in the region, which reduces the joint efficiency. However, the dissolution and overaging are kinetic process. In order to analyze this time dependant softening behavior of the base metal 7020-T6 and 6061-T6, isothermal annealing and differential scanning calorimetric studies are performed. In order to obtain FSW welds with maximum joint efficiency, the welding temperature should not exceed the “softening temperature” of the base metal. But, to produce defect free welds favorable material flow in the weld nugget is necessary. The material flow and consolidation depend on the process temperature. Hence, for a given tool to produce defect free weld there is a need for minimum temperature. If the weld formation temperature is less than the base metal softening temperature, the weld can be made with 100% joint efficiency. In order to optimize the FSW parameter which gives defect free weld with lowest possible temperature, an instrumented programmable FSW machine is designed and developed. The machine is designed in such a way that welding parameters – rotation speed, traverse speed and plunging depth – can be continuously varied from the start to end of the weld between given two values. This reduces the number of experimental trials, material and time. Based on the experimental results the following conclusions are derived. 1.The minimum diameter of the pin required for FSW depends on the base metal and tool material property for a given set of parameters. If the pin diameter is insufficient for a given set of welding parameters, it fails during plunging operation itself. 2.There is a minimum diameter of the shoulder for a given diameter of the pin which produces defect free weld. The ratio of pin to shoulder to produce a defect free weld is not a constant value. It changes with tool geometry and process parameters. 3.Increasing the area of contact between the tool and shoulder for a given set of parameters increases the heat input and results in increased weld nugget grain size. 4.Initial abutting interface of the base metal is eliminated at the leading edge of the tool. However, new surfaces are generated due to interaction with the tool and the newer surfaces are consolidated at the trailing edge of the tool. Importantly, the weld strength is controlled by the defects generated due the improper elimination of newly generated surfaces. 5.Optimal axial load is required to generate the required pressure to consolidate the transferred material at the trailing edge of the tool and should be equal to the flow stress of the material at the processing temperature. The optimal axial load is 8.1kN for a tool having 20mm diameter shoulder with 6mm diameter frustum shaped pin. 6.Only the material that approaches the tool at the leading edge on the advancing side is stirred and the remaining material is simply extruded around the tool. Further, the initial abutting interface is completely removed only when it is located in the stirring zone, otherwise the initial abutting interface is not eliminated. In the present study the interface is completely stirred when it is located on the advancing side of the tool between 0.5mm away from the centerline and edge of the tool. 7.The temperature and pressure at the tool–base metal interface is above the temperature and pressure required for seizure to occur for given tool material (H13) and base metal (7020-T6). Hence, it is clear that during FSW the base metal transfers on to the tool and interaction occurs between transferred layer on tool and base metal. The coefficient of friction between the given tool material and base metal in FSW condition is in the range of 1.2 – 1.4. 8.The minimum temperature requirement for FSW of 7020-T6 is 400oC and 6061-T6 is 430oC. However, 7020-T6 and 6061-T6 softens at lower temperatures than that of the minimum FSW temperature. 7020-T6 softens 30% in 7min at 250oC, 4min at 300oC, 2min at 350oC and 1min at 400oC. After softening 30%, there is 10% recovery in hardness and the hardness remains constant thereafter. Whereas 6061-T6 softens gradually up to 47% in 7min at 350oC and 400oC, below the temperature of 250oC for 7020-T6 and 350oC for 6061-T6 there is no softening observed in 7min. 9.The maximum joint efficiency of the 7020-T6 weld is 82% and 6061-T6 weld is 60%. 10. The reduction in joint efficiency is attributed to overaging of the material in the heat affected zone.

Slitiny hliníku řad 2XXX a 7XXX nejsou shledávány jako svařitelné s použitím tradičních metod svařování. Jsou však široce používány v leteckých a kosmických konstrukcích. Obvyklý způsob jejich spojování je pomocí nýtování. Nově vznikající technologie lineárního svařování třením rotujícím nástrojem (Friction Stir Welding - FSW) již ukázala slibné výsledky při svařování těchto slitin. V této práci jsme prozkoumali aplikace technologie FSW v leteckých konstrukcích zejména jako náhradu nýtování na panelech vyztužených stringery. Sestavili jsme výrobní postup pro daný panel a navrhli další kroky k jeho optimalizaci. Dále jsme sestavili znalostní bázi základních svařovacích parametrů a porovnali jsme nýtování a FSW na jednoduchém modelu využitím metody konečných prvků a s cílem identifikovat rozdíly v charakteru rozložení napětí v těchto vzorcích.

Inconel 718 (IN 718) is widely used in applications, such as aircraft and power turbine components. Recently, fiber laser welding has become an attractive joining technique in industry for fabrication and repair of service-damaged components. However, a major limitation in the laser welding of IN 718 is that liquation cracking occurs. In the present work, autogenous fiber laser welding of IN 718 was used to study the effects of welding parameters and different pre-weld heat treatments on liquation cracking. Contrary to previous studies, a dual effect of heat input on cracking is observed. A rarely reported effect of heat input is attributed to process instability. Liquation cracking increases with pre-weld heat treatment temperatures that increase grain size and/or, possibly, intregranular boron segregation. The study shows that pre-weld heat treatment at 950oC can be used for repair welding of IN 718 without significant loss in cracking resistance.

Inconel 718 (IN 718) is widely used in applications, such as aircraft and power turbine components. Recently, fiber laser welding has become an attractive joining technique in industry for fabrication and repair of service-damaged components. However, a major limitation in the laser welding of IN 718 is that liquation cracking occurs. In the present work, autogenous fiber laser welding of IN 718 was used to study the effects of welding parameters and different pre-weld heat treatments on liquation cracking. Contrary to previous studies, a dual effect of heat input on cracking is observed. A rarely reported effect of heat input is attributed to process instability. Liquation cracking increases with pre-weld heat treatment temperatures that increase grain size and/or, possibly, intregranular boron segregation. The study shows that pre-weld heat treatment at 950oC can be used for repair welding of IN 718 without significant loss in cracking resistance.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T17:19:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Darlan Silva Siewerdt.pdf: 4084524 bytes, checksum: 6cfc1de54400889b3bfa578652d76489 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-23 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Nowadays, pressure vessel has been used in large industrial scale. Its manufacture requires a lot of special care and demand knowledge of standards and suitable materials for every type of application. Given this, it becomes mandatory an adequate welding process and inspection to ensure reliability of the welded joint. In this context, non-destructive testing of Xrays has been made in order to evaluate these welds and verify the presence of discontinuities. Thus, it was found that the porosity is a major discontinuities which generate rework welding, increasing costs. This thesis aims to contribute to the research of porosity in steel weld joints of SA 516 Grade 70 used pressure vessels, through the study of the correlation between the procedure of submerged arc welding and the formation of such discontinuities. In a second stage all the experimental welding procedure is done, varying the welding parameters: voltage, current, welding speed and flow, as the design of experiment. On the sequence, tests of X-ray and visual inspection are performed to determining the amount of porosity and other discontinuities in each sample. Finally, from these evidences is carried out a study of the porosities formation, using factorial design and determined the influence of each parameter in its porosities formation. Besides, an optimized welding procedure was determined, where the chosen samples were submitted to bend test, macrograph, metallography and Vickers hardness to qualify the procedure developed. The thesis concluded that the welding speed and the type of flow are the most important factors that determine the amount and type of porosity formed in welding of steel for pressure vessels. / Nos dias atuais, vasos de pressão têm sido utilizados em grande escala industrial. Sua fabricação requer uma série de cuidados especiais e exigem o conhecimento de normas e materiais adequados para cada tipo de aplicação. Diante disto, torna-se mandatório um processo de soldagem e inspeção adequado para garantir a confiabilidade da junta soldada. Neste contexto, ensaios não destrutivos de raios X têm sido feitos com o intuito de avaliar estas soldas e verificar a presença de descontinuidades. Assim, verificou-se que a porosidade é uma das principais descontinuidades que geram retrabalhos de solda, aumentando os custos. Esta Dissertação de Mestrado pretende contribuir na pesquisa da porosidade em soldas de aço SA 516 Grau 70 utilizado vasos de pressão, através do estudo da correlação entre o procedimento de soldagem por arco submerso e a formação de tais descontinuidades. Num segundo momento é feito todo o procedimento experimental de soldagem, variando os seguintes parâmetros: tensão, corrente, velocidade de soldagem e fluxo, conforme o delineamento do experimento elaborado para então realizar ensaios de raios X e inspeção visual, determinando a quantidade de porosidade e outras descontinuidades em cada amostra. Finalmente, a partir destas evidências realiza-se um estudo da formação de porosidades, através do projeto fatorial e determina-se a influência de cada parâmetro na sua formação. Paralelamente foi elaborado um procedimento otimizado de soldagem, onde as amostras escolhidas passaram por ensaios de dobramento, macrografia, e dureza vickers para qualificar o procedimento. Pode-se concluir que a velocidade de soldagem e o tipo de fluxo são os fatores que mais influenciam na quantidade e tipo de porosidade formada na soldagem de aços para vasos de pressão.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T17:19:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 0 - Capa.pdf: 49375 bytes, checksum: a82e2fca3ff3a4c1780c4fe39da86057 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-07-05 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The TIG welding process (Tungsten Inert Gas), also known as GTAW (Gas Tungsten ArcWelding), is the most commonly used process for welding of thin plates where there is a need for an excellent control of the temperature applied on the piece. This paper presents a study carried out in partnership between the Department of Graduate Studies in Scienceand Materials Engineering and the Department of Industrial Engineering and Stamping of WEG Equipamentos Elétricos S.A Motors Division. It elaborates on the use of the experimental methodology DOE to investigate the influence of TIG welding process parameters, electrical current, welding speed and flow of the shielding gas on the quality of a piece fabricated with silicon electrical steel - ABNT 50F 466M, best known for its 50A 400 specification on the JIS standard. The first step of the study was the designing of the experiment to obtain welded pieces with different combinations of the parameters above mentioned and enable the evaluation of mechanical strength, fillet weld size, hardness and metallographic analysis of the test specimens. The information obtained with analysis of variance techniques (ANOVA) showed that the change in the levels of electrical current and welding speed promotes significant changes in final results. Furthermore, the different rates of gas flow tested caused no differences in response variables of the study. As a result, it was also possible to determine the combinations of these parameters that ensure the required quality and provide increased productivity, energy saving and reduced consumption of the shielding gas. / O processo de soldagem TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas), também conhecido como GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding), é o processo mais utilizado para a soldagem de chapas finas onde um excelente controle do aporte térmico à peça é necessário. Nesta dissertação é presentado um estudo realizado em parceria entre o Departamento de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e engenharia dos Materiais e os Departamentos de Engenharia Industrial e Estamparia da WEG Equipamentos Elétricos S.A. - Motores. Esse estudo envolveu a utilização da metodologia de delineamento experimental DOE para investigar a influência dos parâmetros do processo de soldagem TIG, corrente elétrica, velocidade de deslocamento da tocha e vazão do gás de proteção, na qualidade de uma peça fabricada com aço elétrico silicioso ABNT 50F 466M, mais conhecido pela classificação 50A 400 da norma JIS. Inicialmente foi elaborado o planejamento do experimento a fim de obter peças soldadas com diferentes combinações dos parâmetros acima mencionados e possibilitar a avaliação da resistência mecânica, dimensão dos cordões de solda, dureza e análise metalográfica dos corpos de prova. Os resultados obtidos, com o auxílio da técnica de análise de variância (ANOVA), mostraram que mudanças nos níveis de corrente e na velocidade de soldagem promoveram alterações significativas nos resultados. Por outro lado, as diferentes taxas de vazão de gás testadas não provocaram diferenças nas variáveis de resposta do estudo. Também foi possível determinar as combinações desses parâmetros que garantem a qualidade requerida e proporcionam aumento de produtividade, economia de energia elétrica e redução no consumo de gás de proteção.

The thesis deals with a potential application of welding simulators in basic courses of welding held in welding schools. The first section briefly describes the welding simulators in the global market. There is a detailed description and the control of the welding simulator Virtual Welding, a description of core courses of welding and the necessary welding technology in the following section. Experiments with a welding simulator are carried out in the last section and also their evaluation, comparison and summary of costs.

Les assemblages acier-aluminium de tôles minces (0,8 à 2 mm) ont été beaucoup étudiés au début des années 2000 pour des applications automobiles, dans la perspective d'alléger les véhicules (projet européen Super Light Car). Dans ce contexte, le présent travail est réalisé en vue d'étudier les possibilités d'assemblage hétérogène acier-aluminium par la nouvelle variante du procédé de soudage MIG connue sous l'appellation CMT (Cold Metal Transfer). La première partie de l'étude est consacrée à la compréhension du principe de fonctionnement de ce procédé, en utilisant une plateforme équipée d'un système d'acquisition de données permettant les mesures synchronisées de tension, intensité, vitesse fil et d'images vidéo prises par une caméra rapide. Dans une seconde partie, nous présentons les caractéristiques métallurgiques des assemblages acier/aluminium réalisés en configuration à clin avec des jeux de paramètres couvrant toute la plage étudiée dans la partie précédente. On s'intéresse plus particulièrement à la zone créant la liaison entre l'acier et l'aluminium. Dans une troisième partie, la tenue mécanique des assemblages est évaluée par des essais de traction transverse quasi-statique et sous chargement cyclique. La résistance à rupture de la couche de réaction est aussi évaluée par une technique originale, habituellement dédiée à l'évaluation de l'adhérence des revêtements par choc laser. Enfin, nous proposons une nouvelle méthode pour estimer le rendement du procédé CMT basée sur la simulation numérique par éléments finis de l'évolution des champs de température lors du dépôt d'un cordon d'aluminium sur un substrat d'acier galvanisé, couplée à la modélisation de la croissance de la couche de réaction formée le long de l'interface acier/aluminium. / Joining of steel- aluminum thin sheets (0.8 to 2 mm) has been extensively studied in the beginning of 2000 years for automotive applications, in a regard to reduce vehicle weight (European Project Super Light Car). In this context, this work is carried out to study the possibilities of dissimilar steel-aluminum assembly by the new variant of the MIG welding process known as CMT (Cold Metal Transfer). The first part of the study is devoted to understand the operating principle of this process, using a platform equipped with a data acquisition system for synchronized measurements of voltage, current, speed wire feed and video images taken by a speed camera. In a second part, we present the metallurgical properties of steel-aluminum joints made in lap configuration with parameter sets covering the entire range studied in the previous section. We are especially interested in the area creating the connection between steel and aluminum. In the third part, the mechanical proprieties of connections are evaluated by quasi-static transverse tensile tests and under cyclic loading. The breaking strength of the reaction layer is also evaluated by an original technique, usually dedicated to the evaluation of the adhesion of coatings by laser shock. Finally, we propose a new method to estimate the efficiency of the CMT process based on the finite element numerical simulation of the evolution of temperature fields during the deposition of an aluminum weld on a galvanized steel substrate, coupled with modeling of the growth of the reaction layer formed along the steel / aluminum interface.

Increased understanding of improving the weld-bonding process is essential in order for the automotive industry to constantly develop their designs and production processes for the energy-efficient vehicles of the future. The joining method of weld-bonding, a hybrid method of adhesive joining and resistance spot welding, has introduced new challenges in the manufacturing and design of auto bodies. At the same time as adhesives are more incorporated in the joint configurations’, continuous development and implementation of ultra-high-strength steels, the complexity of the weld-bonding process increases. This thesis presents new approaches of parameter set-up and testing methods for weld-bonded joints. Aiming to displace the adhesive from the welding zone new parameters are tested by producing 1-D weld lobes that are analyzed in a screening matrix to find the factor with greatest effect on the weldability. Laser displacement measurement is a new method used to measure the amount of adhesive present in the joint during the welding cycle. The amount of adhesive plays an important role in the process and the intention is to get an assessment of how different thicknesses affect the weldability. The results showed that the different parameters have different influential behavior depending on the sheet thickness of the welded material. From the main effect screening, cap type has the greatest influence on the weld current range followed by the addition of an extra pre-pulse. The measured amount of adhesive present immediately before the weld pulse is very small. An interesting observation is that samples showing the largest increase in weld current range, compared to the corresponding reference were the samples which had most adhesive present in the contact area. The study showed that there are new parameters that improve the weldability of a weld-bonded joint that can be utilized using existing welding equipment. Finally, the study has shown that many possibilities exists to continue exploit within the field of weld-bonding, to be able to further utilize the effectiveness of weld-bonded joints in future lightweight autobody design. / Ökad förståelse och förbättring av weld-bonding processen (limpunktsvetsning) är väsentligt för att fordonsindustrin ska kunna fortsätta utveckla sina konstruktioner och tillverkningsprocesser för framtidens energieffektiva fordon. Fogningsmetoden weld-bonding, en hybridmetod av limning och punktsvetsning, har tillfört nya utmaningar i tillverkningen och konstruktionen av fordonskarosser. Samtidigt som limfogar används i allt större utsträckning så sker ständig utveckling och tillförande av ultrahöghållfast stål i karosserna som ytterligare påverkar weld-bonding processens komplexitet. Det här examensarbetet introducerar nya sätt att konfigurera processparametrarna och testmetoderna för weld-bondförband. Målet att tränga bort så mycket lim som möjligt från fogen med hjälp av de nya processparametrarna, testas genom att ta fram svetslober som analyseras i ett parameterkartläggande flerfaktorförsök för att hitta de faktorer som har störst inverkan på svetsbarheten. Avståndsmätning med laser är en ny metod som används för att mäta mängden lim som finns i fogen under svetscykeln. Mängden lim har en betydande roll i processen och målsättningen är att få en uppskattning om hur olika limtjocklekar påverkar svetsbarheten. Resultatet visar att olika parametrar har olika inverkan på processens beteende beroende på vilken materialtjocklek som svetsas. Parameterkartläggande flerfaktorförsöket visar att de faktorer som har störst inverkan på svetsfönstrets storlek är elektrodhätta följt av tillförandet av en extra förpuls. Den uppmätta limtjockleken i fogen precis före huvudsvetspulsen är väldigt liten. En intressant observation är att svetsproverna som påvisade den största ökningen av svetsfönstrets storlek, jämfört med referensproverna utan lim, var de prover som hade mest lim kvar i kontaktytan innan svetspulsen. Arbetet i uppsatsen visar att det finns nya svetsparametrar som ökar svetsbarheten hos weld-bondingfogar och som kan tillämpas i existerande svetsutrustningar. Slutligen har arbetet visat att det existerar många möjligheter att fortsätta utveckla weld-bondingprocessen ytterligare för att fortsättningsvis utnyttja fogens effektivitet i framtidens konstruktion av lätta fordonskarosser.