Patterned neuronal activity driven by the sensory environment plays a key role in the development of precise synaptic connectivity in the brain. It is well established that the action potentials (‘spikes’) generated by individual neurons are crucial to this developmental process. A neuron’s spiking activity is jointly determined by its synaptic inputs and its intrinsic excitability. It is therefore important to ask how a neuron develops these attributes, and whether the emergence of spiking might itself be governed by activity-dependent processes. In this thesis, I address these questions in the retinotectal system of Xenopus laevis. First, I investigate the extent to which visuospatial information is available to the developing retinotectal system. I show that the eyes of developing Xenopus larvae are hyperopic at the onset of vision, but rapidly grow towards correct vision. Despite its imperfect optics, the Xenopus eye is able to generate spatially restricted activity on the retina, which is evident in the spatial structure of the receptive fields (RFs) of tectal neurons. Using a novel method to map the visually driven spiking output and synaptic inputs of the same tectal neuron in vivo, I show that neuronal spiking activity closely follows the spatiotemporal profile of glutamatergic inputs. Next, I characterise a population of neurons in the developing optic tectum that does not fire action potentials, despite receiving visually evoked glutamatergic and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synaptic inputs. A comparison of visually spiking and visually non-spiking neurons reveals that the principal reason these neurons are ‘silent’ is that they lack sufficient glutamatergic synaptic excitation. In the final section of the thesis, I investigate whether visually driven activity can play a role in the ‘unsilencing’ of these silent neurons. I show that non-spiking tectal neurons can be rapidly converted into spiking neurons through a visual conditioning protocol. This conversion is associated with a selective increase in glutamatergic input and implicates a novel, spike-independent form of synaptic potentiation. I provide evidence that this novel plasticity process is mediated by GABAergic inputs that are depolarising during early development, and can act in synergy with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) to strengthen immature glutamatergic synapses. Consistent with this, preventing the depolarising effects of GABA or blocking NMDARs abolished the activity-dependent unsilencing of tectal neurons. These results therefore support a model in which GABAergic and glutamatergic transmitter systems function synergistically to enable a neuron to recruit the synaptic excitation it needs to develop sensory-driven spiking activity. This represents a transition with important consequences for both the functional output and the activity-dependent development of a neuron.

Un prélèvement efficace de K+ à partir du sol est essentiel au développement des végétaux. Sur un sol riche en NaCl, le maintien d'un prélèvement sélectif et efficace de K+ à partir du sol et le contrôle de l'exportation de Na+ par la racine vers les feuilles constituent des fonctions essentielles pour la survie de la plante. Chez les plantes, les transporteurs HKT (High-affinity K+ Transporters) sont classés en deux sous-familles sur des bases phylogénétiques et de sélectivité ionique. Les membres de la sous-famille 1 transportent sélectivement Na+. Plusieurs d'entre eux ont été identifiés comme des acteurs majeurs de l'adaptation des plantes aux fortes salinités du sol en prévenant l'accumulation de Na+ dans les parties aériennes. Les membres de la sous-famille 2 co-transportent Na+ et K+. Leur rôle dans la plante, notamment dans le transport de K+, est encore mal compris. Je me suis intéressé à différents systèmes de transports de K+ et Na+, appartenant essentiellement à la famille HKT chez le riz. La caractérisation que j'ai effectuée a fait appel à plusieurs approches : électrophysiologie (voltage-clamp après expression en ovocyte de xénope), biologie cellulaire, génétique inverse et PCR en temps réel. L'analyse de l'expression par RT-PCR en temps réel de toute la famille HKT (4 membres dans chacune des deux sous-familles) a montré que ces transporteurs sont différemment exprimés au niveau des racines et des feuilles, et que leur niveau de transcrits est fortement et differentiellement régulé en conditions de stress salin ou osmotique et en présence d'hormones, ce qui suggère que ces différents systèmes jouent des rôles propres et diversifiés dans la plante. L'analyse plus détaillée d'OsHKT2;4, a montré par expression hétérologue dans l'ovocyte de xénope que ce système possède des propriétés fonctionnelles originales: il transporte sélectivement K+ à faibles concentrations de Na+, mais co-transporte Na+ et K+ à fortes concentrations de Na+ (>10 mM). L'analyse de l'expression d'OsHKT2;4 a révélé que ce transporteur est surexprimé en condition de carence en K+ et de stress salin, suggérant qu'OsHKT2;4 pourrait jouer un rôle important dans le transport de K+ dans ces deux conditions. Enfin, un patron d'expression nouveau pour un transporteur HKT a été révélé par l'analyse de plantes transgéniques exprimant le promoteur d'OsHKT2;4 fusionné aux gènes rapporteurs GUS ou GFP : en plus d'une localisation classique dans les tissus conducteurs, une forte expression est observée dans les stomates des gaines et des limbes foliaires, suggérant un rôle dans l'osmocontractilité de ces cellules.Mots clés: Oryza sativa, transport de potassium, transporteur HKT, Na+-K+ co-transporteur, électrophysiologie, ovocyte de xénope, localisation tissulaire, PCR quantitative, stress salin / Efficient uptake of K+ from the soil solution is essential for plant development. When plants are grown on a soil rich in NaCl, the maintenance of an efficient and selective uptake of K+ and the control of Na+ export from roots to shoots are crucial for plant survival. In plants, transporters belonging to the HKT (Highaffinity K+ Transport) family have been sorted in two subfamilies based on phylogenetic grounds and functional properties. Subfamily 1 members transport selectively Na+. Several of them have been shown to play major roles in plant adaptation to salt stress by preventing excessive accumulation of Na+ in shoots. Subfamily 2 members are thought to co-transport Na+ and K+, at least when expressed in heterologous systems. Their roles in planta, especially their potential role in K+ transport, are still largely unknown. I have been interested in different K+ and/or Na+ transport systems in rice, mostly belonging to the HKT family. For their characterization, different approaches have been used: electrophysiology (two-electrode voltage-clamp after expression in Xenopus oocytes), cell biology, reverse genetics and real-time PCR. Realtime RT-PCR analyses on the whole family of rice HKT transporters (4 members in both subfamilies) showed that the expression level in roots and leaves of these different systems is variable, and is differentially regulated by salt and osmotic stresses as well as by hormonal treatments, which suggests that these transporters have diverse and differentiated functions in the plant. A detailed analysis of OsHKT2;4 revealed original functional properties: this HKT transporter was indeed shown to be K+-selectively in the presence of low external Na+, but to switch to Na+ and K+ co-transport mode at high (>10 mM) Na+ concentrations. Expression analysis of OsHKT2;4 showed that this transporter is overexpressed upon salt stress and K+ shortage, which suggests that it could play an important role in K+ transport in these two conditions. At last, a new expression pattern for an HKT transporter was evidenced through the analysis of transgenic rice plants expressing OsHKT2;4 promoter fused to the GUS or GFP reporter genes: in addition to a classical localization in vascular tissues, expression of OsHKT2;4 was observed in stomata, suggesting a role for OsHKT2;4 in osmotic regulation in these cells

La division cellulaire est un élément clé du développement. Pendant ce processus, le matériel génétique (chromosomes) est distribué entre les deux cellules filles. Cette distribution est effectuée par le fuseau mitotique ou méiotique ; une mauvaise formation de cette structure peut être critique. Le cytosquelette joue un rôle prédominant dans la division cellulaire. Malgré des progrès importants dans la compréhension de son rôle dans le processus de division cellulaire, de nombreuses questions restent encore sans réponse et des progrès techniques pour étudier ces phénomènes sont nécessaires. Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle de l’auto-organisation de l’actine cytoplasmique dans deux systèmes modèles : les extraits cellulaires de Xénope et les ovocytes de souris. En utilisant une approche interdisciplinaire, nous avons développé de nouveaux outils expérimentaux et analytiques pour étudier le rôle de l’actine cytoplasmique pendant la division cellulaire. En encapsulant les extraits cellulaires de Xénope dans des gouttes, nous pouvons mimer le volume cellulaire. Nous utilisons ce système pour étudier les interactions entre l’actine et les microtubules. Dans un premier projet, nous avons montré que l’auto-organisation de l’actine peut déclencher des cascades de signalisation. Grâce à l’ingénierie de deux propriétés de l’actine, nous avons démontré que l’auto-organisation de ce polymère peut permettre l’assemblage de microtubules. Dans un deuxième projet, nous avons montré que la dynamique de l’actine cytoplasmique peut induire des contraintes sur l’organisation et la dynamique des microtubules. Nos résultats suggèrent que les propriétés dynamiques du réseau d’actine sont un facteur important pour l’assemblage des microtubules. Dans l’ovocyte de souris, nous avons développé une méthode pour suivre de manière automatique le mouvement d’objets passifs avec des tailles variables. Nous avons utilisé ce système pour étudier l’effet de l’actine cytoplasmique sur le transport à longue portée. Nous avons ainsi validé l’existence d’un mécanisme de centrage non spécifique de gros objets pendant la prophase. Nous avons aussi démontré que ce mécanisme de centrage reste présent pendant le reste de la méiose, en même temps que la migration du fuseau vers le cortex de l’ovocyte. / Cell division is a key element of the development of an embryo throughout all his life. During cell division, the genetic material (chromosomes) is distributed between the two daughter cells. This distribution is achieved by the spindle and a misbehavior in the formation of this structure can be critical. The cytoskeleton polymers are playing a predominant role in cell division. Despite important progresses in the understanding of their role in cell division process, numerous questions still have to be answered and technical progresses to study these phenomena are still needed. In this PhD work, we studied the role of cytoplasmic F-actin self-organization in two model systems: Xenopus egg extracts and mouse oocytes. Using an interdisciplinary approach, we developed new experimental and analytical tools to study the role of cytoplasmic F-actin during cell division. By encapsulating Xenopus actin-intact egg extracts in droplets, we are able to mimic cellular environment. We use this system to study interactions between F-actin and microtubules. In a first project, we showed that F-actin self-organization can trigger signaling pathways. By engineering two properties of the microfilament self-organization and using Ran dependent microtubule nucleation, we found that F-actin dynamics promotes the robust assembly of microtubules. In a second project, we showed that the dynamics of cytoplasmic F-actin can induce constraints on the microtubule organization and dynamics in aster and spindle structures. Our results suggest that the dynamic properties of cytoplasmic F-actin meshwork are of a primary importance for the proper assembly of microtubule structures.In the mouse oocyte, we set-up a method to automatically track the movement of passive objects with tunable size. We used this system to examine the effect of cytoplasmic F-actin on long-range transport. We thus validated the existence of a non-specific mechanism for large objects centering during Prophase. We also demonstrated that this centering mechanism is still present during the rest of meiosis, coexisting with the spindle migration toward the cortex.

Cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) are generated prenatally and generally survive the lifetime of the individual without undergoing proliferation or replacement. Therefore, the mechanisms promoting individual RPE cell survival and longevity in vivo may be distinct from, or a limited subset of, the mechanisms known to promote survival in proliferative cells in culture. To identify specific factors that sustain cell viability independent of effects on cell division, we studied RPE cells in low-density suspension culture, in which cell proliferation is inhibited. Single cells from Xenopus laevis eyes were plated onto a non-adhesive surface in protein-free medium, then assayed for survival using the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Cell viability in these cultures was essentially undiminished over the initial 2 days. However, by approximately 1 week in culture, only an average of 53% of the cells remained alive. Plating cells on a fibronectin-coated substratum significantly enhanced survival, such that the number of cells alive at 1 week was 80-90% of the initial level. Essentially identical results were obtained with laminin- or collagen IV-coated substrata, or with insulin (5μg ml-1) in the medium. The absence of cell division in these cultures was confirmed by cell counting and BrdU incorporation experiments. Interestingly, in suspension cultures derived from monolayers previously established on microporous membrane filters, cells lost viability much faster (average of 80% dead at 3 days), and showed a relatively greater response to extracellular matrix proteins (five-fold increase in cell survival at 3 days). Enhanced RPE survival in response to fibronectin required spreading of the cell on a substratum, rather than mere adherence, as there was a high correlation between the percentage of spread cells and the percentage that were MTT-positive (r = 0·940). Cell spreading apparently enhanced survival by preventing the initiation of programmed cell death: unattached non-viable cells in culture exhibited morphological features expected of apoptosis, as well as positive staining by the TUNEL reaction. These studies demonstrate that, of several factors shown to maintain or increase cell number in proliferating cultures, some have their effect, at least in part, by promoting the survival of individual cells. The increased susceptibility of subcultured RPE to cell death has implications for clinical transplantation applications that may require manipulation of RPE in vitro.

A cell integrates mitogenic signals received at the plasma membrane with intracellular biochemical changes to direct the events of cell division. Oocytes from Xenopus laevis offer a system that allows molecular dissection of pathways controlling cell growth and division in response to extracellular cues. Xenopus oocytes, physiologically arrested in a G2 like state, respond to the hormone progesterone to reinitiate meiosis and mature into a fertilizable egg. Signals received at the oocyte membrane induce translation of dormant maternal mRNAs that not only drive meiotic entry but also maintain the cell cycle arrest in an egg. A major pathway controlling the translation of these mRNAs is cytoplasmic polyadenylation, facilitated by the Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Element Binding protein (CPEB) through cis-acting elements in their 3'untranslated regions (3'UTRs). Cytoplasmic polyadenylation requires the phosphorylation of serine174 on CPEB by Aurora-A as well as the translation of a hitherto unknown mRNA. The transcript of the RINGO/Spy gene is a putative candidate for this unknown upstream regulator of CPEB function. RINGO/Spy mRNA is translationally repressed in immature oocytes by a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex consisting of the repressor Pumilio-2, the putative activator Deleted in Azoospermia-like (DAZl) and embryonic poly A binding protein (ePAB). Progesterone signaling leads to the dissociation of Pumilio-2 from the mRNP and the ensuing RINGO/Spy protein synthesis, in turn, promotes cytoplasmic polyadenylation and oocyte maturation. Pumilio and its associated proteins, such as Drosophila Brain tumor (Brat) and DAZl, in addition to their cytoplasmic roles have ill-defined functions within the nucleus. We detected DAZl within the nucleoli of telomerase-immortalized human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in interphase and on acrocentric chromosomes during mitosis. DAZl colocalizes with the RNA polymerase I associated Upstream Binding transcription Factor (UBF), most likely through pre-ribosomal RNA and is a likely component of the Nucleolar Organization Region (NOR). Stably knocking down DAZl in RPEs using short hairpin RNAs results in loss of nucleolar segregation, the physiological outcome of which is under investigation. These preliminary findings indicate an additional role for DAZl within the nucleolus, one likely to be independent from cytoplasmic translational control.

Sertoli cells (SCs) are somatic cells of testicular tissue that are involved in spermatogenesis and maturation of germ cells. They are currently being extensively studied for their immunomodulatory abilities, and recent studies have shown that they share some properties with mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). Detailed characterization of SCs and clarification of their role in testicular tissue is crucial for potential use of SCs as a therapeutic tool in regenerative medicine. Cell culture of Xenopus tropicalis immature Sertoli cells (XtiSCs) and Mus musculus (mSCs) Sertoli cells were established in the Laboratories of Developmental Biology and Immunoregulations, Faculty of Science, Charles University. Previous research has characterized XtiSCs and demonstrated their multipotent potential by in vitro differentiation into a mesodermal line. Following this research, one of the goals of the diploma project was the induction of in vitro differentiation of XtiSC into other cell types, which would verify the differentiation potential of XtiSCs. The mSC expression profile confirmed the somatic origin of this culture as well as the transcription of Sertoli cell gene markers. Differentiation of mSCs along the mesodermal line into osteoblasts, chondrocytes and adipocytes has been successfully induced in vitro....

Sertoli cells represent the only somatic cell type within the seminiferous tubules with direct contact to germ cells. Sertoli cells significantly contribute to the development of the testicular niche in a male embryo. Their role during postnatal life is in the regulation and nutrition of germ cells and the formation of the blood-testis barrier to protect these cells. In our laboratory, we have been successful in establishing a cell line of X. tropicalis immature Sertoli cells (XtiSCs) derived from juvenile testes of X. tropicalis. The objective of this thesis was to induce the differentiation process of XtiSCs into mature Sertoli cells. In vitro experiments using several factors or primary culture from adult male X. tropicalis did not show any mature markers in differentiated XtiSCs. Another experiment using cell culture derived from pubertal mice was partially successful in the induction of the differentiation process. These results indicate that XtiSCs do have some differentiation potential into mature Sertoli cells. Part of this work was to test the ability of testicular cells isolated from juvenile males of X. tropicalis to form de novo organoids. In vitro experiments were successful when these cells were cultured in a three-layer matrigel.

No description available.

La tetracaína (Ttc), cuyas moléculas en solución fisiológica se encuentran mayoritariamente (97 %) en forma protonada, bloquea la corriente (IACh) evocada por acetilcolina (ACh) en ovocitos a los que se ha microtrasplantado receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina (nAChRs) de la electroplaca de Torpedo marmorata. El bloqueo del nAChRm por Ttc fue muy potente, en el rango submicromolar (IC50= 0.5 μM) y reversible, recuperándose las respuestas a valores control tras un periodo de varios minutos. A concentraciones tan bajas como 0.1 μM, la Ttc ejerció un bloqueo que fue dependiente de voltaje, indicando que ejerce un bloqueo a canal abierto. El sitio de unión se pudo determinar en el interior del canal mediante técnicas de acoplamiento molecular. A concentraciones mayores (0.7 μM) se pudo observar un mecanismo de bloqueo distinto, a canal cerrado, que es independiente de voltaje y que se puede explicar por la unión de la Ttc a lugares situados en el ECD del nAChRm, que fueron determinados en los experimentos de docking virtual. Además, a esta concentración la Ttc aceleró la cinética de desensibilización de la IACh, cuando las células se mantuvieron en presencia sostenida del agonista. Esta se evocó cuando se co-aplicó la Ttc junto a la ACh a potenciales negativos. Por el contrario, cuando solamente se pre-aplicó la Ttc (aplicación previa a la de ACh), o cuando se co-aplicó a potenciales positivos, no se modificó la cinética de desensibilización, a pesar de que sí hubo una cierta inhibición de la IACh. Estos experimentos permitieron determinar que el sitio de unión de la Ttc que acelera la desensibilización se encuentra en el interior del canal. El ensayo de docking permitió localizar los residuos a los que su une la Ttc dentro del canal a altas concentraciones (con menor afinidad), que es más superficial que el implicado en el bloqueo a canal abierto. El lugar de unión determinado por anclaje virtual incluye la interacción de Ttc con αE262, γN224, γK271, y γE274, residuos que han sido previamente involucrados en el proceso de activación y desensibilización (Bouzat y cols., 2008; Forman y cols., 2007). El otro anestésico local (LA) estudiado, la benzocaína (Bzc), no posee carga al pH al que se efectúan los registros electrofisiológicos. La Bzc, al igual que la Ttc, inhibió la IACh, pero con una potencia menor, en el rango submilimolar y, a diferencia de la Ttc, su bloqueo fue independiente de voltaje. A pesar de mediar un bloqueo independiente de voltaje, la Bzc, evoca una corriente de rebote (IRb), similar a la que median moléculas que ejercen un bloqueo de canal abierto, sugiriendo que la Bzc podría estar uniéndose en el interior del canal. Otro efecto destacado de la Bzc sobre el nAChRms fue la aceleración de la desensibilización, haciéndola marcadamente más rápida incluso a potenciales positivos (a diferencia del efecto mediado por la Ttc). Además, se observó que, tras su pre-aplicación, la cinética de activación de la IACh se enlenteció y hubo un bloqueo de nAChRs, a canal cerrado, cuya recuperación fue especialmente lenta. Los efectos de ambos LAs fueron muy diferentes sobre los GABAAR. Así, la Ttc apenas tuvo efectos sobre este receptor, incluso a una concentración 10 veces superior a la IC50 determinada para el nAChRm. Por el contrario, la Bzc, aplicada a concentraciones similares a las que inhiben la IACh, aumentó la desensibilización y evocó una IRb similar a la observada en los nAChRs. Adicionalmente, la Bzc tuvo efectos sobre otros canales, como el ClC-0 y el CaCC. En relación con la Bzc, es interesante destacar que debido a su estructura química tiene una muy baja solubilidad al agua y, por tanto, debe solubilizarse en solventes como el etanol (EtOH) o el DMSO. Debido a que estos solventes pueden no ser totalmente inertes se probaron, en las mismas condiciones experimentales. No observándose efectos sobre los nAChRms.

<p> Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of persistent environmental contaminants that have become ubiquitous, resulting in widespread exposure among humans and wildlife. Amphibians are regularly exposed in the field, making them susceptible to sublethal effects of PFAS exposure. In amphibians exposed to PFAS, deleterious effects have been observed, including reduction in body condition measured using the scaled mass index (SMI) and degraded hepatic condition, among others. PFAS may dysregulate lipid metabolism by altering signaling cascades regulated by peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPAR), but whether changes in energy stores can explain changes in amphibian SMI and/or hepatic condition remain underexplored. Since lipids are a critical energy reserve for anurans, understanding whether lipid metabolism is being perturbed is critical. The central objective of this thesis was to investigate the effect of PFAS on lipid homeostasis in <em>Xenopus laevis </em>tadpoles within the context of a PPAR mechanism of action (MOA), considering apical, molecular, and lipidomic endpoints. I conducted three studies: (a) a study to characterize SMI and the relative expression of the hepatic xPPARα/β/γ during metamorphosis, (b) a pharmaceutical exposure to assess the <em>in vivo</em> effects of xPPARα/β/γ agonism on hepatic gene expression for select downstream targets (<em>apoa5, fabp1, acox1,​ pck1</em>), and (c) a chronic PFAS exposure to investigate the effects of environmentally relevant concentrations (PFOS, PFHxS, PFOA, PFHxA at 0.5 ppb; binary mixture of PFOS:PFHxS at 1 ppb) on lipid homeostasis through apical endpoints (mass, snout vent length, SMI, hepatic condition), relative hepatic gene expression, and Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) profiling of the hepatic lipidome for changes in relative class abundance. In study (a), I identified SMI and hepatic expression of <em>xPPARα/β/γ</em> is dynamic during late metamorphosis, indicating the potential for heightened susceptibility. However, in study (b), pharmaceutical agonists had no effect on <em>X. laevis</em> at high doses. For study (c), I did not observe effects on a majority of apical endpoints, including SMI, but detected a significant sex-specific reduction in hepatic condition for male<em> X. laevis</em> tadpoles exposed to single-chemical perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) treatments. For gene expression, I observed a transient downregulation for apolipoprotein-V (<em>apoa5</em>) at Nieuwkoop and Faber (NF) stage 62 for <em>X. laevis</em> tadpoles exposed to single-chemical perfluorocarboxylic acid (PFCA) treatments. Lipid profiling detected transient dysregulation of predominantly membrane lipids in-response to short-chain PFAS treatments at NF 58. Overall, our findings indicate PFAS may exert toxicity during anuran metamorphosis through multiple mechanisms of action (MOA) with sex-specific and developmental-stage specific outcomes.</p>