Title: Within-Day Energy Balance and Protein Intake Affect Body Composition in Physically Active Young Adult Females Background: Past studies suggest that individuals who eat smaller, more frequent meals are at a metabolic advantage when compared to those who eat larger, less frequent isocaloric meals. Studies also suggest that consumption of small amounts (~ 20 to 30 g) of protein evenly distributed during the day, may be a superior strategy for satisfying the protein requirement and improving muscle protein synthesis. It was, therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between body composition and the distributed consumption of energy and protein in physically active young adult females. Methods: Using an IRB approved protocol, physically active female volunteers were measured for height using a standard wall mount stadiometer; body composition and weight were measured using a multi-current 8-mode segmental bioelectrical impedance device (Tanita, Arlington Heights, Illinois USA, Model BC-418). The volunteers kept a food and activity journal for one day, which was assessed to determine hourly energy balance and hourly protein intake. Exertion was assessed using a relative intensity activity MET value scale that produces multiples of resting energy expenditure, which was predicted using the Harris-Benedict equation. Results: The 28 females who volunteered for this study ranged in age from 19-24 years. Significant inverse associations were found between protein (grams/kg) consumption and fat mass (r=-0.42; p=0.026); and FFM and the ratio of protein to energy balance at 4pm (r=-0.376; p=0.049). There was a significant positive association between FFM and the ratio of protein to energy balance at 12pm (r=0.390; p=0.040) and 9pm (r= 0.379; p=0.047). There was also a significant positive association between the ratio of FFM to height and the ratio of protein to energy balance at 12 pm (r=0.423; p=0.025). There was a significant association between highest daily peak energy balance and FFM to height ratio (r=0.402; p=0.034). Regression analysis determined that independent EB and protein variables could be used to predict the dependent variable FFM to Height ratio (r=.727; p=0.019). Conclusions: These findings demonstrate a significant positive association between highest daily EB and FFM to height ratio. The results also suggest that higher protein consumption per kg is inversely associated with fat mass. Similarly, when protein is consumed when in ±400 kcal energy balance, is associated with higher FFM. Additionally, energy balance and protein variables can be used to predict FFM to height ratio using a regression equation that accounts for 52.9% of variance. These data indicate that subjects spent far more hours in an energy balance deficit than surplus, making it difficult to assess the impact of protein intake distribution on body composition. It does appear that, from a relatively small subsample (n=28) who did achieve a positive within-day energy balance and adequate protein intake, consumption of protein while in good energy balance may help physically active adult females achieve a body composition that is low in fat mass and high in lean muscle mass.

This study examined the local needs of individuals accessing an adult community psychology service, using a cross sectional view of those waiting for the service. This service mapping exercise aimed to gather a better understanding of how the service was operating and the local differences in need. The results showed 163 individuals were waiting to access the service, with the majority (131) waiting for the stand-alone service. The different levels of demand resulted in varying waiting times across the service, with the stand-alone bases accruing the longest and the South-East and West areas producing the biggest relative need. Individuals waiting for the CMHT service were more likely to have two or more presenting problems than those waiting for stand-alone psychology (62.5% and 38.2% respectively). Social phobia and bipolar were more prevalent in the CMHT service, in comparison the stand-alone service had a higher percentage of individuals with depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and post traumatic stress disorder, however the proportions differed between areas. The second part of the study explored the effect on estimated waiting times of improving access to the stand-alone service by devolving it to local CMHT areas. Waiting times varied according to the resource deployment criteria used; relative need proved the most promising. The proposed advantages and disadvantages of reconfiguration demonstrated the complex implications involved, reinforcing the need for clear rationale when considering service restructuring. In conclusion this project highlighted the need for the service to continue tracking demand and individuals’ needs and keep systematic waiting time information for all parts of the service. The results provided a useful starting point to inform future service development, whilst emphasising the necessity for longitudinal data too.

The 2004 Gender Equity Education Act (GEEA) sought to challenge gender and sexual discrimination in Taiwan by focusing on the importance of spaces of education as sites where gender and sexual identities are normalized and reproduced. This thesis explores the production of the GEEA and its subsequent implementation in two schools in Taipei City. Through reviewing geographical literature on education, children/young people, gender and sexualities, this thesis explores four research questions: (1) how the aims of the GEEA are shaped in Taiwanese policy context; (2) how the GEEA is implemented in schools; (3) how teachers shape young people's gender and sexual identities; (4) how young people's experiences of teaching practices and peer cultures affect their understandings of gender and sexual identities. Methods including discourse analysis, semi-structured interviews, and observation are adopted to answer the above questions. The research aims to challenge the dichotomy of inward- and outward-looking approaches in geographies of education, to expand the construction of childhood and the gender model in existing geographical research in Western contexts, and to further the conceptualisation of different forms of heterosexuality. Consequently, based on empirical findings, the thesis argues that the objective of the GEEA, which is to enable the performance of diverse gender and sexual identities in educational spaces, has not been achieved yet because of the contradictory practices evident within school spaces. In conclusion, the thesis relates the research findings to some of the key debates within contemporary geographical literatures by highlighting the importance of combing inward- and outward-looking approaches to study education, the complex nature of young people's gender identities formation, and the age-dependent form of heterosexuality. Ultimately, this thesis demonstrates the crucial role of education spaces in shaping young people's identities in an East Asian context.

The aim of this study was to assess the physical activity, attitudes towards physical education, and health related fitness at two points, one year apart (Phase One and Phase Two). Three hundred and ninety four secondary school pupils of mixed ethnicities from National Curriculum school years 7, 8 and 9 (mean age ± S.D. = 12.9 ± 0.81 years) participated in phase one of the study. Two hundred and sixty seven pupils (from the original 394 participants) from National Curriculum school years 8, 9 and 10 (mean age ± S.D. = 13.7 ± 0.79 years) took part in phase two one year later. Physical activity was measured using the four by one-day physical activity recall questionnaire (Cale, 1993). Attitude was measured using the Pre-Adolescent Attitude towards Physical Education Questionnaire (PAAPEQ) (Shropshire, 1997). Five components of health related fitness were measured in a randomly selected sub-sample (35%) of the overall sample: body composition (measured using skinfold measures and body mass index); cardiovascular endurance (measured using the twenty metre multistage fitness test, Brewer et al., 1988); flexibility (measured using the sit and reach test); muscular strength (measured using hand grip dynamometry); and muscular endurance (measured using situps). Results of repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant decrease in energy expenditure between phase one and phase two (p<0.01) and young people’s energy expenditure was higher during weekends (especially Saturdays) than during school days (p<0.01). Young Asians were found to expend less energy than white and black pupils (p<0.01) and boys expended more energy than girls (p<0.01). No main effect according to school year was found (p>0.05) although a significant ‘time’ by ‘days’ of the week interaction was revealed; pupils in Year 8 were more active on school days than those in Years 7 and 9 (p<0.05). Non-parametric analyses conducted on time spent in moderate physical activity (MPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA) indicated that: MPA and VPA decreased between phases one and two; Asians consistently spent less time in MPA than white and black pupils (p<0.01); boys engaged in more MPA and VPA than girls (p<0.01). However, the difference in mean reported time for boys and girls decreased between phases one and two. Percentages of the whole sample meeting optimal activity guidelines and percentages classified as active or moderately active decreased between measurements for the whole sample. With regard to attitudes towards PE, results from MANOVA revealed a significant ‘school year’ x ‘ethnicity’ x ‘gender’ interaction (p<0.05). Attitudes of black males became more positive with age whereas the attitudes of other groups followed an age related decline. Significant main effects were found according to school year (p<0.01) and ethnicity (p<0.05). Attitude towards PE became less favourable with school year. Asian pupils had more positive overall attitudes than white and black pupils but univariate analysis revealed that Asian pupils had a less positive attitude towards their PE teacher (p<0.05). Furthermore, Pearson’s product moment correlations indicated weak yet significant positive relationships between total attitude towards PE and energy expenditure (p<0.01), time spent in moderate activity (p<0.05) and time spent in vigorous activity (p<0.01). Results of repeated measures ANOVA conducted on health related fitness data revealed that, for all groups, body fat (p<0.05) and muscular endurance (p<0.01) increased between phases one and two. In both phases, significant positive relationships were found between muscular endurance and energy expenditure (p<0.01) and vigorous activity (p<0.05 and p<0.01 for phases one and two respectively). Therefore, young people who were more active had greater levels of muscular endurance. No further consistent findings were made. Findings indicate that generally young people’s physical activity decreases with age and that girls are less active than boys although as young people age the physical activity gap between the genderes narrows. Findings also lend support to the idea that cultural differences may influence physical activity levels and attitudes towards PE. Furthermore, associations between physical activity and attitude towards PE exist and therefore, attitude may be used to predict physical activity behaviour. Ethnicity, age, and attitude towards PE should be considered in the development of future interventions to increase young people’s physical activity levels. However, as the current study did not reveal strong associations between physical activity and health related fitness, further research is required in the area.

This thesis is a detailed account and analysis of young disabled people‟s inclusions within one Further Education College. These inclusions were tied to a number of complex interactions between the people who exist there and key reforms to Further Education systems which aim to support an individual‟s capacity to offer entrepreneurial performances. Central to these reforms is alternative provision, which offer places in college to school aged students who risk failing to invest in the work-related skills and knowledge that apparently has measurable consequences for future earnings and social justice. This thesis shows how the inclusion of young disabled people in a contemporary college community has some unintended effects and consequences, and how their lives were differentially affected by social capital arising from social networks based on trust. An emancipatory, qualitative methodology was used to gather data. The findings provide important insights into how young disabled people possess, produce and utilise social capital, to build new relationships, to develop identity, to resist or manipulate pre-assigned social roles, networks and resources and to make the transition from school to college. In their own words, young disabled people question the sense of optimism often attributed to alternative provision and the extent to which their existence in college has overcome the social barriers and closed networks that can be associated with disabled people as a marginalised group. To harness such existences and to further develop social capital theory, my conclusions set out a young disabled person‟s negotiation of college as an ethical project in which everyone - college students, teaching staff and researchers - have work to do on themselves. This makes alternative provision not something that is just done to many young disabled people but a project for which everyone is responsible. This thesis, therefore, re-reads the story of alternative provision with a wary eye, using a critical approach to social capital theory. In doing so, the research not only confirms the significance of social capital as a crucial analytical tool for young disabled people, but also confronts the overly positive underpinnings of the social capital debate in education.

Extant research on nonprofit marketing and specifically donor behaviour have been quantitative and focused on profiling donors or examining motivations for giving. Prior research in these areas has also focused on adult populations, neglecting children and young people in general and those under 16 in particular. This dearth of research on children and young people in the nonprofit sector is even more surprising in light of the wealth of research on this group in the commercial domain. Furthermore, current understandings of the socialisation of children into donors are largely fragmented. It is important to give children and young people a voice in the literature, and one which reflects their contribution to society. There is also a need to examine how children and young people learn about charities and how they currently behave as donors. This interpretive study sought to explore how children and young people understand, donate and relate to charities. It aimed to provide a thick description of children and young people’s donor behaviour and their socialisation as donors, and to understand their charity consumption experiences through their eyes. Research was guided by child-centred, participatory research principles, with the multi-method research design involving thirty-three individual/paired interviews and focus groups with 91 children and young people and three surveys completed by a total of 606 9-24 year-olds in Scotland. The main findings are that children and young people engage in a variety of charitable activities and have a generally positive image of charities. Their knowledge, awareness and understanding in relation to charities become increasingly complex as they age, reflecting their cognitive and emotional development and greater life experience. Their donor behaviour also changes with age, and this is related to a range of personal and social influences, including the charity consumption arenas in which giving takes place. The process of donor socialisation extends into young adulthood, offering evidence of lifelong socialisation processes in the nonprofit context. The thesis concludes by considering the implications of the study for charity marketers, educators and public policy makers, and by outlining several fruitful avenues of future research.

This research explores experiences and perceptions of mothers of adolescents and young adults (13-22yrs) with Additional Support Needs (ASN) in relation to stress, service provision and family and individual Quality of Life (QoL). A particular focus is the effect of having a family member with ASN who also has a diagnosis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) or where the young person with ASN may have an ASD which has not been diagnosed. Mothers of young people from 4 groups were recruited: i) those with ASN and no ASD (n=41), ii) those with ASN and a diagnosis of ASD (n=18), iii) those with ASN, no diagnosis of ASD but with a positive score on an ASD screening measure (n=17) and iv) typically developing controls (n=17). The mothers of young people with ASN (n=76) completed standardised questionnaires about family and individual QoL, stress, service provision, child behaviour and presence and severity of ASD traits. Twenty two of these mothers also took part in a semi-structured interview about coping with issues identified as most stressful by them in the stress questionnaire. The mothers of typically developing young people (n=17) completed standardised questionnaires on individual and family quality of life and on the behaviour of their similarly aged son or daughter. Data collected via these questionnaires showed that increased severity of ASD was associated with increased maternal stress, which in turn was associated with decreased family and maternal QoL. Mothers of typically developing young people had significantly higher individual and family QoL scores than each of the three other groups. The findings from the interviews supported the questionnaire results and gave further insight into mothers’ life experiences. Mothers identified many perceived barriers to their child’s progress including: lack of support and lack of co-ordinated service provision. The results suggest that mothers of young people with ASN experience lower individual and family quality of life than mothers of typically developing young people. Parenting an adolescent or young adult with ASN is perceived as stressful and that the presence of behaviour associated with ASD is additionally stressful. Possible reasons for differences in quality of life outcomes amongst the study groups are discussed. Implications for adequate services and recommendations for future research are suggested.

The processes of educational decision making and formations of identity lie at the heart of the present thesis that explores the narratives of twenty-three young people with migrant and nonmigrant background. The thesis analyzes the cases of eleven Greek and twelve migrant participants, of Albanian, Georgian, Armenian and Palestinian ethnicities attending two upper secondary Lyceums in Greece, one sub-urban Vocational and one inner-city Comprehensive located in the city of Thessaloniki. The narratives of young people are analyzed as performative acts and as social practices constructed locally and intersubjectively, rather than as expressions of their essentialist realities. The narrative analysis aims more specifically at demonstrating empirically the social conditionings of school choice and the intricate ways that decision-making is cross-cut by and implicated in the processes of identity formation and negotiation. The educational choices these young people are called to make are situated within the broader socioeconomic and discursive milieu and within the structural arrangements of the post-16 institutional landscape of Greece. The issue of youth agency as grappling against the structural limitations of a given milieu, with its cultural particularities is at the backdrop of the present qualitative study. Young people’s identities are conceptualized as being produced, negotiated and contested in a shifting context through the interactions with significant others, namely their peers, teachers and families and through the interplay of identifications, social positions, capitals, transforming individual habituses and the institutional contexts of the two schools. In more detail, the subjectively felt classed, ethnic and gendered positions are analyzed as perceived, invested and discoursively performed by the young participants. Central role is attributed to the notion of habitus as embodying the complex interweaving of dispositions, discourses, collective and individual histories. It is argued that the processes of activation and re-conversion of capitals (economic, social, cultural) in which young people engage, along with the dynamic change of habitus in the face of evolving conditions in the host country, can be a potentially useful conceptual schema for understanding the ways migrant and non-migrant young people experience and make sense of their positioning in social space. The processes of drawing distinctions between perceived others and themselves mediate the ways young people engage in the weaving of their identities through a more or less ascribed, constrained and perpetually negotiated sense of belonging. In addition analytical attention is paid to the parental engagement and in particular the resources and dispositions that young people’s families invest and transmit in relation to their schooling and their academic and occupational future. In this frame the narrated educational choices are embedded in young people’s learner identities and familial histories and are closely linked with their projections and envisioning of the future. To conclude, the decision-making dynamics emerge through a matrix weaved by differing resources, positions and dispositions that grant young people with unequal opportunities for constructing selfnarratives and engaging with school choice.

In the Storyline approach a fictive world is created in the classroom. Learners become characters in a story, which develops as they work in small groups on open key questions, devised by the teacher on the basis of curriculum content and in which practical and theoretical tasks are integrated. Though established in first language contexts, Storyline is less known in second language education, although it would seem to offer conditions considered to promote language development in young learners: the story framework provides an engaging and meaningful context in which learners use their language skills holistically, in tasks which simulate the way they might use English in the real world, and in which they can use their creative talents. This multi-strategy case study investigated the language development of a class of Swedish 11-13 year olds who took part in Storyline, Our Sustainable Street, lasting five weeks. In the topic the learners were families living in a new street in a fictive English town. The aim was to consolidate their existing structural and lexical knowledge, develop their language skills and introduce the lexis of sustainability. Findings show that the learners became engaged when they worked with the Storyline, and that this impacted positively on their language development, especially regarding the learning of new words, losing the fear of speaking English before their peers, and in the voluntary production of longer and more structurally and lexically complex written texts. Features which contributed most to learner engagement were found to be group work, art work and the variety of task types, with the boys also motivated by not working with a textbook and girls by opportunities to use their imagination. The results suggest that inclusion of the Storyline approach in a teaching repertoire can facilitate language development in young learners.

Adolescence is a risk period for offending and head injury (HI), with rates of HI in young offender populations frequently exceeding those in the community. Poor parenting practices have been associated with increased risk of offending and development of reactive and proactive aggression. Preliminary research suggests HI may discriminate offender profiles within young offenders, but the influence of HI on offending alongside parenting and aggression is less well known. This study explored the relationships between parenting practices, reactive and proactive aggression, HI and offending in a sample of male young offenders from a Young Offender Institute (n=98) using self report data. A history of at least one HI was reported by 73.5%, with 61.1% reporting a knock out from their worst HI. Poor supervision emerged as a key predictor: predicting knock out history, indicators of offending and reactive and proactive aggression. Repeated HI was predictive of reactive aggression and a knock out history predicted earlier age of first offence. The impact of HI on outcomes via neuropsychological sequelea or as a “marker” for contextual risk factors such as poor supervision and reactive aggression are examined. Clinical implications for young offenders are discussed.