The study of adsorption of n-alkanes in zeolite pores represents both a fundamental problem in molecular thermodynamics and also a problem with substantial industrial importance. Until mid 19th century, adsorption was mainly used for purification processes such as removal of H2S and mercaptans from natural gas and organic matter from water. However, with the emergence of molecular sieves, especially zeolites, adsorption processes have become an attractive alter- native to distillation in large scale separation of mixtures that have low relative volatility into streams each enriched in one of the components. The pore di- ameters of molecular sieves are of the order of molecular diameters and hence selective adsorption can be achieved by both a difference in adsorbate-adsorbent interactions of various species and obstruction by the pore walls to some of the species in the mixture. The existing adsorption theories such as Henry’s law, Langmuir adsorption model and BET isotherm are incapable of predicting the adsorption isotherms of n-alkanes in zeolite pores. The reason is that in microporous adsorbents, the sorbate molecular mechanisms are influenced by geometrical constraints also. This limitation in the use of theory can be overcome by developing a molecular model and using computers to mimic the real system. This nature of simulation is called molecular simulations. With the development of advanced algorithms, improved force-field parameters and very high computational power of present day computers, molecular simulations have become an important tool in studying adsorption on micro-porous materials. Adsorption experiments of mixtures of long chain alkanes into silicalite under liquid phase conditions show selectivity inversion and azeotrope formation. These effects are due to the subtle interplay between the size of the adsorbed molecules and pore topology of the adsorbent. The underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for selective uptake of one of the components cannot be obtained from experiments but can be realized through simulations. Therefore, in this study, the selective uptake of lighter component during liquid phase adsorption of C14/C15 and C15/C16 n-alkane binary mixtures in the zeolite silicalite is understood through configurational bias grand canonical Monte Carlo (CB- GCMC) molecular simulation technique and a course-grained siting analysis. The simulations are conducted under conditions of low and high loading. The siting pattern of the adsorbates inside the zeolite pores is used to explain the selectivity as seen in experiments.

No description available.

[ES] Las zeolitas son sólidos cristalinos microporosos con canales y cavidades de tamaños moleculares, que pueden presentar gran variedad de estructuras y composición química, lo que las hace útiles como catalizadores en gran variedad de procesos químicos. En la presente tesis doctoral, se han estudiado en profundidad las propiedades estructurales de zeolitas con estructura RTH y MFI pura sílice y aluminosilicato, utilizando fundamentalmente la técnica de resonancia magnética nuclear (RMN). Además, se han estudiado catalizadores zeolíticos tipo Ag-FAU para una reacción de interés medioambiental como la Oxidación Catalítica Selectiva de NH3 (NH3-SCO). En esta tesis, las zeolitas tipo MFI y RTH se han sintetizado utilizando tetraalquilamonios y tetralquilfosfonios como ADEs y HF como agente mineralizante. Los resultados referentes a la zeolita MFI pura sílice indican que el ADE utilizado afecta al orden local de la estructura, a la distribución de flúor y a la formación de defectos de red. En la síntesis de la zeolita tipo MFI aluminosilicato, se ha observado que el ADE utilizado y la relación Si/Al produce diferencias significativas en los espectros de RMN de 27Al, que se atribuyen normalmente a variaciones en la distribución del aluminio en diferentes sitios cristalográficos. Sin embargo, las diferencias desaparecen después de la calcinación, lo que cuestiona esta interpretación. La zeolita tipo RTH pura sílice se ha sintetizado con el catión iPr3MeP+ variando los tiempos y la temperatura de síntesis. Estos parámetros afectan tanto a la estructura local de los átomos de silicio como a la distribución del flúor en la zeolita. Se ha observado también la transformación de la estructura tipo STF a RTH durante la síntesis. La modificación con fósforo de zeolitas tipo aluminosilicato, que normalmente se realiza por impregnación, estabiliza el aluminio de la red en condiciones hidrotermales, lo que tiene importantes implicaciones en las aplicaciones industriales. En esta tesis, se han incorporado cantidades variables de fósforo en las zeolitas MFI y RTH aluminosilicatos utilizando mezclas de alquilamonios y alquilfosfonios como ADEs. Los resultados indican que el fósforo permanece en las zeolitas después de la calcinación estabilizando el aluminio de red. La caracterización detallada de las muestras ha permitido proponer las especies Al-P formadas, responsables de la estabilización de la red. Además, las zeolitas P-RTH y P-ZSM-5 se han utilizado como catalizadores para la reacción de metanol a olefinas. Por último, se ha estudiado la influencia de diferentes parámetros como la relación Ag/Al, la presencia de cationes alcalinos o la acidez Brønsted en zeolitas Ag-FAU y sus repercusiones en el comportamiento catalítico para la reacción de NH3-SCO. Los catalizadores se han caracterizado exhaustivamente antes, durante y después de la reacción, observándose que las partículas de plata metálica, que son los centros activos, se re-dispersan y oxidan en condiciones de reacción. / [CA] Les zeolites són sòlids cristal·lins i microporosos amb canals i cavitats de dimensions moleculars, que poden presentar una gran varietat d' estructures i composició química, això les fa molt interessants com a catalitzadors en un ampli nombre de reaccions químiques. En la present tesi doctoral, s'ha estudiat en profunditat les propietats estructurals de les zeolites amb estructura RTH i MFI pura sílice i amb sílici i alumini, utilitzant fonamentalment la tècnica de ressonància magnètica nuclear. A més, s'han estudiat catalitzadors basats en Ag-FAU zeolites per a una reacció d'interès mediambiental com es l' Oxidació Catalítica Selectiva d'amoníac (NH3-SCO). En aquesta tesi, les zeolites tipus MFI i RTH s'han sintetitzat amb l'ús de cations tetraalquilamoni i tetraalquilfosfoni i HF com agent mineralitzant. Els resultats obtinguts per a la zeolita MFI pura sílice mostren com l'ADE utilitzat juga un paper important en l'ordre local dels àtoms de silici, la distribució de fluor i la formació de defectes zeolítics. En la síntesi de la zeolita MFI aluminosilicat, s'ha observat que la natura dels ADEs i la relació Si/Al produeix diferències significatives a l'espectre de 27Al de RMN, normalment associades a una localització diferent de l'alumini. Però eixes diferències desapareixen amb la calcinació de les zeolites. La zeolita RTH pura sílice ha sigut sintetitzada amb el catió iPr3MeP+ modificant les condicions de síntesi (temps i temperatura). Els resultats mostren que l'ordre local dels àtoms de l' estructura zeolítica o la distribució de fluor es veu influenciada per aquests paràmetres. També s'ha pogut observar que en determinades condicions de síntesi es produeix la transformació de la estructura tipus STF en RTH en el procés de síntesi. La modificació amb fòsfor de les zeolites que contenen alumini, que normalment es realitza per impregnació, estabilitza l'alumini de l'estructura zeolítica en condicions hidrotermals, la qual cosa té una importància crucial per a les aplicacions industrials d'aquests materials. En aquesta tesi, s'han incorporat quantitats creixents de fòsfor a les zeolites RTH i MFI aluminosilicats utilitzant mescles d'alquilamonis i alquilfosfonis com ADEs. Els resultats indiquen que tot el fòsfor introduït roman a la zeolita després de la calcinació, estabilitzant l'alumini en la zeolita. La caracterització dels materials ha permès proposar les espècies Al-P formades a l'interior de les zeolites, que són les responsables de l'alta estabilitat hidrotermal de l'alumini a l'estructura zeolítica. A més, les zeolites RTH i MFI modificades amb fòsfor han sigut utilitzades com a catalitzadors en la reacció de metanol a olefines (MTO). Per últim, s'ha estudiat la influència de alguns paràmetres com la relació Ag/Al, la presència de cations alcalins o centres àcids de BrØnsted als catalitzadors tipus Ag-FAU i les seues repercussions per a la reacció de NH3-SCO. Els catalitzadors s'han caracteritzat abans, durant i després de la reacció i els resultats mostren que les nanopartícules de plata metàl·lica són el centre actiu de la reacció i que es re-dispersen i oxiden en condicions de reacció. / [EN] Zeolites are microporous crystalline solids containing channels and cavities of molecular dimensions, which can present different structures and chemical composition, making them especially interesting as catalysts in several chemical processes. In this doctoral thesis, we have deeply studied the structural properties of pure silica and aluminosilicate RTH- and MFI-type zeolites mainly using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Moreover, we have studied the properties of Ag-FAU zeolites as catalysts for the selective catalytic oxidation of ammonia (NH3-SCO), which is a reaction of great interest for the environmental. Here, zeolites RTH and MFI have been synthesized in the presence of tetraalkilammonium and phosphonium cations as OSDAs and in fluoride media. The results obtained for the MFI zeolites show that the OSDAs has a strong influence on the local order of the framework, the fluorine distribution and the formation of siloxy/silanol defects. The results for the aluminosilicate MFI-type (ZSM-5) zeolite show that the shape of the 27Al NMR spectrum changes depending on both the OSDA and the Si/Al ratio, which is usually attributed to a different Al sitting in the zeolite. These differences disappear after the calcination of the zeolites, questioning the classical interpretation. RTH-type zeolite has been synthesized using the iPr3MeP+ cation varying the synthesis conditions (time and temperature). The results show that these parameters affect the local environment of the silicon atoms and the fluorine distribution inside the zeolite. It has been also possible to identify the zeolitic transformation of the STF structure into the RTH-type during the synthesis. The introduction of phosphorus in the aluminosilicate zeolites, usually done by the impregnation procedure, stabilizes the framework aluminium under steam conditions, with important implications in industrial processes. In this doctoral thesis, we have varied the P/Al molar ratios using the dual-template synthesis technique. All phosphorus from the P-based OSDAs remain inside the zeolites after the thermal/hydrothermal treatments. The exhaustive characterization of the materials has allowed us to propose the Al-P species formed inside the zeolites responsible of the aluminium stabilization. Moreover, some phosphorus modified RTH and MFI zeolites were tested in the methanol to olefins (MTO) reaction. Finally, we have studied the influence of different parameters such as the Ag/Al ratio, the alkali cations or the presence of BrØnsted acid sites in the Ag-FAU zeolites and its implications in the NH3-SCO reaction. The Ag-FAU catalysts have been deeply characterized before, during and after the catalytic tests, identifying the Ag0 specie, which is the active centre for this reaction, and that metal particles are re-dispersed and oxidized under reaction conditions. / Martínez Ortigosa, J. (2021). Caracterización estructural de zeolitas por Resonancia Magnetica Nuclear y su aplicación como catalizadores [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/165576

[ES] La presente tesis doctoral se centra en la obtención, vía síntesis directa, de materiales zeolíticos nanocristalinos con propiedades fisicoquímicas y catalíticas mejoradas respecto a los materiales de referencia. Para ello se ha hecho uso de tensioativos creados específicamente para cada una de las estructuras zeolíticas estudiadas, evitando el uso de procesos post-sintéticos que conllevan una pérdida de material cristalino. En la primera parte del trabajo se ha estudiado la obtención de la zeolita ITQ-2 deslaminada por síntesis directa (DS-ITQ-2) mediante el uso de varios tensioactivos, siendo el C16DC1 (N-Hexadecil-N'-metil-1,4-diazabiciclo[2.2.2]octano) con el que mejores resultados se han obtenido. Se ha estudiado la influencia de la longitud de la cadena alifática y la concentración del agente director de estructura orgánico (ADEO) en el gel de síntesis sobre la cinética del proceso de cristalización y las implicaciones sobre las características fisicoquímicas del material obtenido. Mediante el control de la concentración del tensioactivo en el gel de síntesis, ha sido posible dirigir el grado de deslaminación del material final. Las propiedades fisicoquímicas del material considerado como óptimo se han comparado con las de las zeolitas MCM-22, MCM-56 e ITQ-2, todas ellas con la misma estructura cristalina (MWW). Por último, la actividad catalítica de la zeolita DS-ITQ-2 se ha estudiado en dos reacciones, la alquilación de benceno con propileno para la obtención de cumeno y la reacción de 2,5-dimetilfurano con etileno para la obtención de p-xileno, obteniendo en ambos casos unos resultados de conversión y selectividad excelentes. La segunda parte de la tesis se ha centrado en la preparación de la zeolita ferrierita en su forma nanocristalina por síntesis directa mediante la utilización de tensioactivos. Se han estudiado tensioactivos con tres partes polares diferentes obtenidos a partir de las correspondientes aminas utilizadas como ADEOs. Además, también se ha estudiado el efecto de la longitud de la cadena del tensioactivo entre los 6 y los 16 átomos de carbono. La modificación de parámetros del gel de síntesis como por ejemplo la relación molar entre la piperidina o el tensioactivo y la sílice ha resultado ser determinante a la hora de conseguir una composición óptima para la obtención de la zeolita nanocristalina con las propiedades fisicoquímicas deseadas. La optimización de la temperatura de síntesis y la introducción de cristales de siembra en el gel de síntesis ha permitido mejorar las propiedades finales del material. La actividad catalítica de las nanoferrieritas se ha estudiado en dos reacciones diferentes, la oligomerización de 1-penteno y la isomerización de 1-buteno. Se ha mostrado la importancia de reducir el tamaño del cristal de la ferrierita, obteniéndose materiales con actividad y selectividad muy superior a los descritos en la bibliografía abierta y de patentes. / [CA] La present tesis doctoral es centra en l'obtenció, via síntesi directa, de materials zeolítics nanocristalins amb propietats fisicoquímiques i catalítiques millorades respecte als materiales de referència. Per a això s'ha fet ús de tensioatius creats específicament per a cadascuna de les estructures zeolítiques estudiades, evitant l'ús de processos post-sintètics que comporten una pèrdua de material cristal·lí. En la primera part del treball s'ha estudiat l'obtenció de la zeolita ITQ-2 deslaminada per síntesi directa (DS-ITQ-2) mitjançant l'ús de diversos tensioactius, essent el C16DC1 (N-Hexadecil-N'-metil-1,4-diazabiciclo[2.2.2]octà) amb el que millors resultats s'han obtés. S'ha estudiat la influència de la longitud de la cadena alifàtica i la concentració de l'agent director d'estructura orgànic (ADEO) en el gel de síntesi sobre la cinètica del procés de cristal·lització i les implicacions sobre les característiques fisicoquímiques del material obtés. Mitjançant el control de la concentració del tensioactiu en el gel de síntesi, ha sigut possible dirigir el grau de deslaminació del material final. Les propietats fisicoquímiques del material considerat com òptim s'han comparat amb les de les zeolites MCM-22, MCM-56 i ITQ-2, totes elles amb la mateixa estructura cristal·lina (MWW). Per íltim, l'activitat catalítica de la zeolita DS-ITQ-2 s'ha estudiat en dos reaccions, l'alquilació de benzé amb propilé per a l'obtenció de cumé i la reacció de 2,5-dimetilfurà amb etilé per a l'obtenció de p-xilé, obtenint en tots dos casos uns resultats de conversió i selectivitat excel·lents. La segona part de la tesi s'ha centrat en la preparació de la zeolita ferrierita a la seua forma nanocristal·lina per síntesi directa mitjançant la utilizació de tensioactius. S'han estudiat tensioactius amb tres parts polars diferents obtesos a partir de les corresponents amines utilitzades com a ADEOs. A més a més, també s'ha estudiat l'efecte de la longitud de la cadena del tensioactiu entre els 6 i els 16 àtoms de carboni. La modificació de paràmetres del gel de síntesi com per exemple la relació molar entre la piperidina o el tensioactiu i la sílice ha resultat ser determinant a l'hora de conseguir una composició òptima per a l'obtenció de la zeolita nanocristal·lina amb les propietats fisicoquímiques desitjades. L'optimització de la temperatura de síntesi i la introducció de cristalls de sembra en el gel de síntesi ha permés millorar les propietats finals del material. L'activitat catalítica de les nanoferrierites s'ha estudiat en dos reaccions diferents, l'oligomerizació de l'1-penté i la isomerització de l'1-buté. S'ha mostrat la import`ancia de reduir el tamany del cristall de la ferrierita, obtenint-se materials amb activitat i selectivitat molt superior als descrits en la bibliografia oberta i de patents. / [EN] This doctoral thesis focuses on obtaining, via direct synthesis, nanocrystalline zeolite materials with improved physicochemical and catalytic properties compared to reference materials. For this, surfactants created specifically for each of the zeolite structures studied have been used, avoiding the use of post-synthetic processes that lead to a loss of crystalline material. In the first part of the work, the obtaining of the delaminated ITQ-2 zeolite by direct synthesis (DS-ITQ-2) through the use of various surfactants, being C16DC1 (NHexadecyl-N'-methyl-1,4-diazabiciclo[2.2.2]octane) with which the best results have been obtained. The influence of the length of the aliphatic chain and the concentration of the organic structure directing agent (OSDA) in the synthesis gel on the kinetics of the crystallization process and the implications on the physicochemical characteristics of the obtained material have been studied. By controlling the concentration of the surfactant in the synthesis gel, it has been possible to direct the degree of delamination of the final material. The physicochemical properties of the material considered optimal have been compared with those of the zeolite MCM-22, MCM-56 and ITQ-2, all of them with the same crystalline structure (MWW). Finally, the catalytic activity of the zeolite DS-ITQ-2 has been studied in two reactions, the alkylation of benzene with propylene to obtain cumene and the reaction of 2,5-dimethylfuran with ethylene to obtain p-xylene, obtaining excellent conversion and selectivity results in both cases. The second part of the thesis has focused on the preparation of ferrierite zeolite in its nanocrystalline form by direct synthesis using surfactants. Surfactants with three different polar parts, obtained from the corresponding amines used as OSDAs, have been studied. In addition, the effect of the chain length of the surfactant between 6 and 16 carbon atoms has also been studied. Modifying the parameters of the synthesis gel, such as the molar ratio between piperidine or surfactant and silica, has turned out to be decisive when it comes to achieving an optimal composition for obtaining nanocrystalline zeolite with the desired physicochemical properties. The optimization of the synthesis temperature and the introduction of seed crystals in the synthesis gel have allowed to improve the final properties of the material. The catalytic activity of nanoferrierites has been studied in two different reactions, the oligomerization of 1-pentene and the isomerization of 1-butene. The importance of reducing the size of the ferrierite crystal has been shown, obtaining materials with activity and selectivity much higher than those described in the open and patent literature. / Margarit Benavent, VJ. (2023). Síntesis directa de zeolitas monolámina (zeolitas 2D) y sus aplicaciones catalíticas [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/192880

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / Aromatic precursor compounds are derivatives that play an important role in biosystems and are useful in the production of fine chemicals. This work focuses on the catalytic synthesis of 2-methyl-1, 4-naphthoquinone and cresols (para- and ortho) using aqueous hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant in liquidphase oxidation of 2-methylnaphthalene and toluene over titanium-substituted zeolite TS-1 or Ti-MCM-41. Catalysts synthesised in this work were calcined at 550°C, extensively characterised using techniques such as X-ray Fluorescence for determining the catalyst chemical composition; BET for surface area, pore size and micropore volume; Powder X-ray diffraction for determining their crystallinity and phase purity and SEM was used to investigate the catalyst morphologies. The BET surface areas for Ti-MCM-41 showed a surface area of 1025 m2/g, and a 0.575 cm3/g micropore volume. However, zeolite TS-1 showed a BET surface area of 439 m2/g and a 0.174 cm3/g micropore volume. The initial experiments on 2-methylnaphthalene hydroxylation were performed using the normal batch method. After a series of batch runs, without any success as no products were generated as confirmed by GC, a second experimental tool was proposed. This technique made use of the reflux system at reaction conditions similar to that of the batch system. After performing several experimental runs and optimising the system to various reactor operating conditions and without any products formed, the thought of continuing using the reflux was put on hold. Due to this, a third procedure was brought into perspective. This process made use of PTFE lined Parr autoclave. The reactor operating conditions were changed in order to suit the specifications and requirements of the autoclave. This process yielded promising results and the formation of 2-MNQ was realised. There was a drawback when using an autoclave as only one data point was obtained, at the end of each run. Therefore, it was not possible to investigate reaction kinetics in terms of time. Addition of aqueous hydrogen peroxide (30 wt-%) solution in the feed was done in one lot at the beginning of each reaction in all oxidation reactions, to a reactor containing 2-methylnaphthalene and the catalyst in an appropriate solvent of choice (methanol, acetonitrile, 2-propanol, 1-propanol, 1-pentanol, and butanol), with sample withdrawal done over a period of 6 hours (excluding catalytic experiments done with a Parr autoclave as sampling was impossible). As expected, 2-methylnaphthalene oxidation reactions with medium pore zeolite TS-1 yielded no formation of 2-methyl-1, 4-naphthoquinone using various types of solvents, with a batch reactor, reflux system, or a Parr PTFE autoclave. This was attributed to the fact that 2-methylnaphthalene is a large compound and hinders diffusion into zeolite channels. With the use of an autoclave, Ti-MCM-41 catalysed reactions showed that the choice of a solvent and reaction temperature strongly affect 2- methylnaphthalene conversion and product selectivity. This was proven after comparing a series of different solvents (such as methanol, isopropanol, npropanol, isobutanol, n-pentanol and acetonitrile) at different temperatures. Only reactions using acetonitrile as a solvent showed 2-MNQ. Formation of 2- MNQ, indicating that acetonitrile is an appropriate choice of solvent for this system. The highest 2-methylnaphthalene conversion (92%) was achieved at 120 ˚C, with a relative product selectivity of 51.4 %. Temperature showed a major effect on 2-MN conversion as at lower reaction temperature 100˚C, the relative product selectivity (72%) seems to enhance; however, the drawback is the fact that lower 2-methylnaphthalene conversions (18%) are attained. Another important point to note is the fact that using an autoclave (with acetonitrile as a solvent), 2-methyl-1-naphthol was generated as a co-product. In conclusion, it has been shown that the hydroxylation of different aromatic compounds over zeolites conducted in this study generated interesting findings. In 2-MN hydroxylation over Ti-MCM-41 as a catalyst, only acetonitrile is an appropriate choice of solvent using an autoclave. In addition, zeolite TS-1 is not a suitable catalyst for 2-MN hydroxylation reactions. It is ideal to optimise an autoclave in order to investigate reaction kinetics and optimum selectivity. Toluene hydroxylation reactions yielded para and ortho-cresol as expected with either water or acetonitrile as a solvent. No meta-cresol was formed. The kinetic model fitted generated a good fit with water as a solvent or excess toluene, with acetonitrile as a solvent generating a reasonable fit.

Potentially harmful elements (PHEs) have been researched in a wide variety of disciplines, including pedology, chemistry, pollution science and medicine. Within the scientific community, emphasis has usually been placed on the toxic elements, such as cadmium, chromium, lead and arsenic, but rarely has there been consideration of interactions between PHEs, the sediment matrix and processes occurring in the sediments. Dredging of canals is needed for navigability purposes and consequently testing of dredged sediments (to assess whether sediments are hazardous) and landfilling can be costly for British Waterways facing constantly changing regulations and reduction in government grants. PHE mobility and availability in canal sediments can be affected by oxygen availability, pH and Redox. Remediation is thus becoming a priority for British Waterways to limit their operational costs. Zeolites, a type of remediation tool, have been widely studied in the past 30 years due to their attractive properties, such as molecular-sieving, high cation exchange capacities and their affinity for PHEs. The pilot study to investigate the efficiency of the clinoptilolite showed that there was a concentration difference between PHEs adsorbed by the clinoptilolite and the PHE concentration lost from the sediments from three sites in the West Midlands. Thorough characterisation of the sediments was needed to understand the speciation of the PHEs and the secondary processes occurring in the sediments. The different components of the sediments were analysed using various analytical methods, such as X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), particle size and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) for the solid-inorganic phase, Ion Chromatography (IC) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emissions Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) for the liquid phase (pore water), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and organic loss on ignition for the organic phase, pH and Redox for the electrochemistry of the sediments and Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-Ray analysis (SEM-EDX) for microscopy and imaging. The British Geological Survey (BGS) sequential extraction method was used to investigate the different phases in the sediments. pH remained near neutral for all three sites and Redox remained anoxic. Organic contents for all three sites were around 30% and contained most of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons considered hazardous. Pore water showed only high concentrations of sulphates but low concentrations of PHEs, suggesting PHEs were not mobile. Sequential extraction confirmed the other results showing that PHEs were mainly associated with stable phases, such as iron and manganese oxides or sulphides. The results have been taken into consideration to design a new remediation strategy to maximise efficiency of the zeolite.

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are nanoporous framework materials with tunable pore size and functionality, and hence attractive for gas separation membrane applications. Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks (ZIFs), a subclass of MOFs, are known for their high thermal and chemical stability. ZIF-8 has demonstrated potential to kinetically separate propane/propene in powder and membrane form. ZIF-8 membranes propane-propene separation performance is superior in comparison to polymer, mixed matrix and carbon membranes. The overarching theme of my research is to address challenges that hinder fabrication of MOF membranes on a commercial scale and in a reproducible and scalable manner. 1. Current approaches, are specific to a given ZIF, a general synthesis route is not available. Use of multiple steps for surface modification or seeding causes reproducibility and scalability issues. 2. Conventional fabrication techniques are batch processes, thereby limiting their commercialization. Here we demonstrate two new approaches that can potentially address these challenges. First, we report one step in situ synthesis of ZIF-8 membranes on more commonly used porous α-alumina supports. By incorporating sodium formate in the in situ growth solution, well intergrown ZIF-8 membranes were synthesized on unmodified supports. The mechanism by which sodium formate promotes heterogeneous nucleation was investigated. Sodium formate reacts with zinc source to form zinc oxide layer, which in turn promotes heterogeneous nucleation. Sodium formate promotes heterogeneous nucleation in other ZIF systems as well, leading to ZIF-7, Zn(Im)2 (ZIF-61 analogue), ZIF-90, and SIM-1 films. Thus one step in situ growth using sodium formate provides a simplified, reproducible and potentially general route for ZIF film fabrication. One step in situ route, although advantageous; is still conventional in nature and batch process with long synthesis time. This limits commercialization, due to scalability and manufacturing cost issues. Taking advantage of coordination chemistry of MOFs and using temperature as driving force, continuous well-intergrown membranes of HKUST-1 and ZIF-8 in relatively short time (15 min) using Rapid Thermal Deposition (RTD). With minimum precursor consumption and simplified synthesis protocol, RTD provides potential for a continuous, scalable, reproducible and commercializable route for MOF membrane fabrication. RTD-prepared MOF membranes show improved separation performances, indicating improved microstructure.

The aim of the present work was to develop synthesis routes to produce synthetic zeolites with industrial attractiveness from non-expensive Bolivian raw materials, such as clays and diatomite. In particular, the work was focused on the synthesis of low-silica zeolites with the LTA and FAU structures. The raw materials as well as intermediate and final zeolite products were structurally characterized by different techniques, namely scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), nitrogen gas adsorption, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Besides, the final properties were evaluated for intended applications i.e. brightness by UV-VIS spectroscopy for LTA-type zeolite A in detergents and the CO2 breakthrough adsorption of FAU-type zeolite X for gas separation.   The first part of this study deals with the synthesis of low silica zeolite A from Bolivian montmorillonite clay (Paper I). The clay was fused at high temperature with NaOH to render the material more reactive. The raw montmorillonite had a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of 4 and sodium aluminate was added to the mixture to decrease this ratio to 2. An optimization of the synthesis time was performed. For the sake of comparison, the same treatment was applied to commercial kaolin. The final zeolite product from Bolivian montmorillonite exhibited high brightness despite the presence of iron in appreciable amount in the starting material and the final product. It was concluded that magnesium, present in the raw material, exerted a masking effect on iron. The latter was incorporated into extraneous magnesium aluminosilica compounds, thereby increasing brightness and strongly decreasing the overall yellowness. This simple method appears as a promising alternative to the complex and costly techniques suggested to reduce the iron content in natural raw materials, especially kaolin.   The second part of the study addresses the synthesis, characterization and evaluation of FAU-type zeolites i.e. Y and X from diatomite and chemical grade reagents, respectively. With regard to the synthesis of zeolite Y, the diatomite was leached in sulfuric acid to remove impurities prior to synthesis, this step also resulted in dealumination, which rendered possible the synthesis of ZSM-5 zeolite (Paper II). However, extra aluminum had to be added in the form of aluminum sulfate for the synthesis of zeolite Y (Paper III). In this case, the raw materials were reacted hydrothermally at 100°C in aqueous medium with sodium hydroxide. Variations in parameters such as the Na2O/SiO2 ratio and synthesis time were investigated. As a result, micro-sized crystals of zeolite Y were obtained at a Na2O/SiO2 ratio of 0.9, which produced zeolite Y with a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of 3.9. Also, zeolite Y with a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of 5.3 in low yield at a Na2O/SiO2 ratio of 0.6 was achieved. In this way, diatomite behaved similarly to colloidal silica in traditional syntheses having a high degree of polymerization. Zeolite Y with a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of 5.3 might be useful for the production of ultra-stable zeolite Y for use as FCC catalyst. Addition of NaCl to this system was also found to completely inhibit the formation of zeolite P and to retard the effects of overrunning by a synergic effect of Na and Cl ions (Paper IV).   As an innovate application, FAU-type zeolite X films were growth on steel monoliths as structured adsorbent for CO2 removal (Paper V). Thicknesses 3 and 10 µm on steel monoliths of 1600 cells per square inches (c.p.s.i.) were investigated. The produced structured adsorbents showed reasonable CO2 adsorption capacity but with a very low pressure drop compared with traditional packed beds of zeolite beads. The CO2 breakthrough fronts were very sharp and the mass transfer resistance was very low compensating the presence of less adsorbing material by reducing cycle time and increased cycle frequency to increase throughput.     To summarize, zeolites with promising characteristics were successfully synthesized from Bolivian raw materials in this thesis work. However, further characterization is required to qualify these products for industrial applications. Moreover, this study might help the development of poor regions of the Bolivian Altiplano and open up for large scale production, since the methods developed in this work are simple and non-expensive. / Characterisation of clays and feldspars from the Altiplano and development of methods for conversion of these materials to valuable zeolites and evaluation in applications

Conventionally, crystalline microporous materials such as zeolites and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are synthesized through the hydrothermal route or the trial-and-error approach. Other synthetic strategies may lead to the synthesis of microporous materials with new architectures or interesting properties. The general aim of this thesis is to investigate some new synthetic routes towards crystalline microporous materials. A top-down and post-synthesis method is reported in Chapter 4. Some zeolites are built up by layers and double-4-ring pillars. Germanium is preferentially located in the double-4-ring sites of a zeolite framework and is hydrolytically unstable. The idea of the top-down method is to disassemble these zeolites to the layer structures by dissolving the Ge-containing pillars and reassemble them to a new framework. This method is applied to the germanosilicate IWW and ITH zeolites for the first time. The effects of framework chemical compositions, Ge distributions and disassembling conditions on the top-down treatment process are investigated. The products obtained from the top-down treatment are characterised. An ionic liquid assisted strategy for the synthesis of zeolites is described in Chapter 5. The ionic liquid assisted strategy is a solvent free reaction. The raw materials are transformed to zeolites through a solid state reaction. The ionic liquids are first used as structure-directing agents (SDAs) in this solvent free reaction to replace the expensive quaternary ammonium hydroxide. A TON zeolite is synthesized using 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide as the SDA. Moreover, the ionic liquid assisted strategy is considered as a “green chemistry” synthetic route due to the high yield of the zeolites and the minor production of waste water. Many aluminophosphates have been successfully synthesized through ionothermal routes. Most of them are synthesized using 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium based ionic liquids. A new ionic liquid, 1-(2-hydroxyl-ethyl)-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([HOEmim]Cl), is prepared and used for the ionothermal synthesis of aluminophosphate materials. A zeolite analogue with the CHA framework has been synthesized. At high synthetic temperatures, the products are large single crystals. The structures of the framework and the SDA are investigated by single crystal diffraction and other characterisation methods. Flexible MOF materials are usually synthesized by a trial-and-error approach. Recently a flexible MOF compound was synthesized using 5-sulfoisophthalic acid (SIP) as the ligand. It was proposed the sulfonate is weakly coordinated to the metal, which brings flexibility to the compound, and the carboxylate groups keep the framework intact. 2-sulfoterephthalic acid (STP) which also contains one sulfonate group and two carboxylate groups is believed to be an alternative ligand for the targeted synthesis of flexible MOFs. In Chapter 7, a MOF compound is synthesized using STP and 4, 4'-bipyridine (Bpy) as ligands to validate the proposed strategy can be generalized. Variable temperature single crystal diffraction analysis solves the structure and reveals a reversible structure transformation upon dehydration and rehydration.

Dynamic atomistic description of bio-inorganic interfaces represents a challenging problem for contemporary computational chemistry. A detailed analysis of processes occurring on the interface between biomolecule and inorganic material can help our understanding of various processes, ranging from chromatography and protein separation to protein immobilization techniques and their effect on enzyme activity or protein conformational stability. High complexity of bio- inorganic interfaces prevents detailed investigation using accurate, but computationally demanding ab initio methods. Since reliable empirical potentials are not available for these systems, the aim of this work is to develop force fields based on ab initio data as well as a general methodology for parameterization of such force fields. Our potential fitting procedure was carried out in an automated fashion based on molecular dynamics simulation. The resulting potentials were applied for investigation of inorganic material's influence on polypeptide conformations.