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This is a socio-economic study of agriculture and its contribution to livelihoods in Venda, one of the black 'homelands' created in South Africa under apartheid. It is based on a survey of households on the Tshiombo irrigation scheme, a project in central Venda with approximately six hundred plot-holders. The alms of the study are to understand the opportunities and constraints facing small farmers, and to suggest ways in which public action can promote rural livelihoods and overcome the legacy of racial oppression and under-development in South Africa. The study includes a review of micro-studies of agriculture and livelihoods from the ten former homelands. A range of unpublished materials and original field research are also used to provide an overview of society and economy in Venda at the end of apartheid and to highlight the problems faced by households attempting to secure a livelihood from the land. The Tshiombo case found that agriculture, on average, contributed approximately a quarter of household income (in cash and kind), with the balance coming mainly from wages and state pensions. Wide disparities were found between households, however, in terms of land-holding, agricultural output and overall household income. Relative poverty was associated with a lack of wage income and poorer households tended to be disproportionately dependent on agriculture. Both arable and livestock farming were dominated by older men, some of whom had a history of off-farm employment but others who had been full-time farmers since the 1960s. The study concludes that there is scope for further development of the agricultural economy at Tshiombo but this will require comprehensive reform of existing state services such as tractor ploughing and agricultural extension. More flexible partnerships between the state and non-state organisations, including private entrepreneurs, individual farmers and the struggling Tshiombo Co-operative in the provision of credit, marketing and transport services are also identified as areas suitable for development. Constraints of land, capital and household labour suggest that in most cases agriculture is likely to remain supplementary to income obtained from the non-farm economy, but can be a valuable source of food and an important safety-net in times of crisis.

Cabo Verde tem registrado um crescimento considerável em nível da subregião Oeste africana, apesar dos enormes desafios que o país apresenta, tais como escassez de água potável, de energia, de saneamento básico, deficiente infraestrutura, limitados recursos naturais, materiais e humanos. Este trabalho analisa as perspectivas e as alternativas para a economia de Cabo Verde, tendo em conta esses enormes desafios. Para este propósito, o trabalho inicia com a problemática do (sub)desenvolvimento, onde além de uma discussão teórica do assunto, se aborda a questão dos pequenos estados insulares da qual Cabo Verde faz parte e as oportunidades de desenvolvimento que ainda restam aos subdesenvolvidos. Em seguida, apresenta-se um histórico da economia de Cabo Verde, com destaque para os vários momentos verificados desde o período antes da independência até os dias de hoje. Depois se discutem alguns aspetos considerados relevantes da economia Cabo-verdiana, como as contas nacionais, a estrutura do emprego e de desemprego, a caracterização de alguns setores de atividade econômica e, também, faz-se uma análise do desempenho da economia. Por fim, no capítulo 5 discute-se a importância das relações internacionais do país, avaliam-se os desafios que o país enfrenta, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento face a esses desafios, e as alternativas de desenvolvimento, tendo por base o turismo, a ajuda pública ao desenvolvimento (APD), o investimento direto externo (IDE) e as remessas dos emigrantes (RE). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo sugerem que o país, apesar de melhoras significativas em diversas áreas de desenvolvimento, fato comprovado pela recente elevação a País de Rendimento Médio (PRM), o país apresenta ainda enormes desequilíbrios e distorções no seu processo de desenvolvimento. Evidencia-se neste trabalho que, apesar dos constantes desafios e constrangimentos que o país enfrenta, e apesar das alternativas de desenvolvimento se basearem nos fatores externos que não estão sob total controle do país, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento são bastante favoráveis. / Cape Verde has experienced considerable growth in the sub-region of West Africa which is a part, despite the enormous challenges the country presents, such as scarcity of water, energy, sanitation, lack of infrastructure, lack of natural resources, limited human and material resources. This paper analyzes the prospects and the alternatives for the economy of Cape Verde, given these enormous challenges. For this purpose, this work begins with the problem of the (under) development, where in addition to a theoretical discussion of the subject, addressing the issue of small island states which Cape Verde made part and the development opportunities that remain for developing countries. Then comes a history of Cape Verde's economy by addressing various events occurred since the period before independence until today. After that, it is considered some relevant aspects of the Cape Verde economy, such as national accounts, the structure of employment and unemployment, the characterization of certain sectors of economic activity, and also an analysis of economic performance. Finally, in Chapter 5 discusses the importance of the international relations of the country, to assess the challenges facing the country, prospects for development with these challenges, and the alternatives of development, based on tourism, Help official development assistance (ODA), foreign direct investment (FDI) and remittances (RE). The results of this work suggest that the country, despite significant improvements in several areas of the development, proven by the recent graduate to Middle Income Country (MIC), the country still has huge imbalances and distortions in its development process. Evidence in this work, despite the continuing challenges and constraints facing the country, despite the development alternatives are based on the external factors that are not under total control of the country, the development prospects are quite favorable.

Cabo Verde tem registrado um crescimento considerável em nível da subregião Oeste africana, apesar dos enormes desafios que o país apresenta, tais como escassez de água potável, de energia, de saneamento básico, deficiente infraestrutura, limitados recursos naturais, materiais e humanos. Este trabalho analisa as perspectivas e as alternativas para a economia de Cabo Verde, tendo em conta esses enormes desafios. Para este propósito, o trabalho inicia com a problemática do (sub)desenvolvimento, onde além de uma discussão teórica do assunto, se aborda a questão dos pequenos estados insulares da qual Cabo Verde faz parte e as oportunidades de desenvolvimento que ainda restam aos subdesenvolvidos. Em seguida, apresenta-se um histórico da economia de Cabo Verde, com destaque para os vários momentos verificados desde o período antes da independência até os dias de hoje. Depois se discutem alguns aspetos considerados relevantes da economia Cabo-verdiana, como as contas nacionais, a estrutura do emprego e de desemprego, a caracterização de alguns setores de atividade econômica e, também, faz-se uma análise do desempenho da economia. Por fim, no capítulo 5 discute-se a importância das relações internacionais do país, avaliam-se os desafios que o país enfrenta, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento face a esses desafios, e as alternativas de desenvolvimento, tendo por base o turismo, a ajuda pública ao desenvolvimento (APD), o investimento direto externo (IDE) e as remessas dos emigrantes (RE). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo sugerem que o país, apesar de melhoras significativas em diversas áreas de desenvolvimento, fato comprovado pela recente elevação a País de Rendimento Médio (PRM), o país apresenta ainda enormes desequilíbrios e distorções no seu processo de desenvolvimento. Evidencia-se neste trabalho que, apesar dos constantes desafios e constrangimentos que o país enfrenta, e apesar das alternativas de desenvolvimento se basearem nos fatores externos que não estão sob total controle do país, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento são bastante favoráveis. / Cape Verde has experienced considerable growth in the sub-region of West Africa which is a part, despite the enormous challenges the country presents, such as scarcity of water, energy, sanitation, lack of infrastructure, lack of natural resources, limited human and material resources. This paper analyzes the prospects and the alternatives for the economy of Cape Verde, given these enormous challenges. For this purpose, this work begins with the problem of the (under) development, where in addition to a theoretical discussion of the subject, addressing the issue of small island states which Cape Verde made part and the development opportunities that remain for developing countries. Then comes a history of Cape Verde's economy by addressing various events occurred since the period before independence until today. After that, it is considered some relevant aspects of the Cape Verde economy, such as national accounts, the structure of employment and unemployment, the characterization of certain sectors of economic activity, and also an analysis of economic performance. Finally, in Chapter 5 discusses the importance of the international relations of the country, to assess the challenges facing the country, prospects for development with these challenges, and the alternatives of development, based on tourism, Help official development assistance (ODA), foreign direct investment (FDI) and remittances (RE). The results of this work suggest that the country, despite significant improvements in several areas of the development, proven by the recent graduate to Middle Income Country (MIC), the country still has huge imbalances and distortions in its development process. Evidence in this work, despite the continuing challenges and constraints facing the country, despite the development alternatives are based on the external factors that are not under total control of the country, the development prospects are quite favorable.

Cabo Verde tem registrado um crescimento considerável em nível da subregião Oeste africana, apesar dos enormes desafios que o país apresenta, tais como escassez de água potável, de energia, de saneamento básico, deficiente infraestrutura, limitados recursos naturais, materiais e humanos. Este trabalho analisa as perspectivas e as alternativas para a economia de Cabo Verde, tendo em conta esses enormes desafios. Para este propósito, o trabalho inicia com a problemática do (sub)desenvolvimento, onde além de uma discussão teórica do assunto, se aborda a questão dos pequenos estados insulares da qual Cabo Verde faz parte e as oportunidades de desenvolvimento que ainda restam aos subdesenvolvidos. Em seguida, apresenta-se um histórico da economia de Cabo Verde, com destaque para os vários momentos verificados desde o período antes da independência até os dias de hoje. Depois se discutem alguns aspetos considerados relevantes da economia Cabo-verdiana, como as contas nacionais, a estrutura do emprego e de desemprego, a caracterização de alguns setores de atividade econômica e, também, faz-se uma análise do desempenho da economia. Por fim, no capítulo 5 discute-se a importância das relações internacionais do país, avaliam-se os desafios que o país enfrenta, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento face a esses desafios, e as alternativas de desenvolvimento, tendo por base o turismo, a ajuda pública ao desenvolvimento (APD), o investimento direto externo (IDE) e as remessas dos emigrantes (RE). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo sugerem que o país, apesar de melhoras significativas em diversas áreas de desenvolvimento, fato comprovado pela recente elevação a País de Rendimento Médio (PRM), o país apresenta ainda enormes desequilíbrios e distorções no seu processo de desenvolvimento. Evidencia-se neste trabalho que, apesar dos constantes desafios e constrangimentos que o país enfrenta, e apesar das alternativas de desenvolvimento se basearem nos fatores externos que não estão sob total controle do país, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento são bastante favoráveis. / Cape Verde has experienced considerable growth in the sub-region of West Africa which is a part, despite the enormous challenges the country presents, such as scarcity of water, energy, sanitation, lack of infrastructure, lack of natural resources, limited human and material resources. This paper analyzes the prospects and the alternatives for the economy of Cape Verde, given these enormous challenges. For this purpose, this work begins with the problem of the (under) development, where in addition to a theoretical discussion of the subject, addressing the issue of small island states which Cape Verde made part and the development opportunities that remain for developing countries. Then comes a history of Cape Verde's economy by addressing various events occurred since the period before independence until today. After that, it is considered some relevant aspects of the Cape Verde economy, such as national accounts, the structure of employment and unemployment, the characterization of certain sectors of economic activity, and also an analysis of economic performance. Finally, in Chapter 5 discusses the importance of the international relations of the country, to assess the challenges facing the country, prospects for development with these challenges, and the alternatives of development, based on tourism, Help official development assistance (ODA), foreign direct investment (FDI) and remittances (RE). The results of this work suggest that the country, despite significant improvements in several areas of the development, proven by the recent graduate to Middle Income Country (MIC), the country still has huge imbalances and distortions in its development process. Evidence in this work, despite the continuing challenges and constraints facing the country, despite the development alternatives are based on the external factors that are not under total control of the country, the development prospects are quite favorable.

La thématique de la gouvernance et du développement en vue de la concorde en République du Bénin (1960-2010) nous permet de comprendre que les échecs à l’union ou à l’unité en République du Bénin sont déjà des entorses à l’unification. Les Béninois n’ont jamais réussi à être sincères les uns vis à vis des autres. Les jeux de trahison qui ont existé entre eux depuis les temps royaux où les affres de guerres ont marqué négativement toutes les parties belligérantes ont perduré jusqu’aux temps modernes. Et, c’est l’absence de ce pardon réciproque pour une sincère réconciliation qui occasionne les crocs en jambes à la gouvernance concertée et concordante dans notre pays. Cette situation est source d’instabilité politique et sociale. Elle a développé des comportements tribalistes et ethniques qui se mutent en individualisme outré chez les concitoyens quoiqu’en soient les types de régimes politiques que nous engrangeons. Or, aucune économie ne peut être prospère si elle ne tient contre du vrai sens de l’équité. C’est ce qui occasionne le sous- développement de la République du Bénin. Les théories classiques de l’économie (« croissance d’abord, redistribution ensuite » de Lewis) échouent dans notre cas. Celles dites extrémistes (« redistribution d’abord, croissance ensuite ») échouent de même que celles relevant des modèles réformistes (« redistribution et distribution ou satisfaction des besoins humains essentiels »). Il faut donc décrire des perspectives d’amélioration de la qualité des ressources humaines, de l’économie, de la forme de gouvernance … en vue de la concorde pour l’échéance présidentielle de 2011-2016 et des suites possibles de gouvernance en République du Bénin. / The theme of governance and development for harmony in the Republic of Benin (1960-2010) allows us to understand that failures to the union or unit in Benin are already sprains to the unification. The Beninese has never managed to be sincere towards each other. The games of betrayal that existed between them since the days when the horrors of royal wars marked negatively all the warring parties have survived to modern times. And is the lack of mutual forgiveness for a sincere reconciliation which causes the tripped governance concerted and consistent in our country. This is a source of political and social instability. She developed behaviors that are tribal and ethnic mutate into excessive individualism among citizens albeit are the types of political regimes that we have achieved. However, no economy can prosper if it is against the true sense of fairness. This causes the underdevelopment of the Republic of Benin. The classical theories of economics ("growth first, then redistribution" of Lewis) fail. These so-Called extremists ("Redistribution first, then growth") fail as well as those covered by the models reformist ("distribution and redistribution or satisfaction of basic human needs ").We must therefore describe the prospects for improving the quality of human resources, economics, form of governance ... for harmony for the presidential term 2011-2016 and possible consequences of governance in the Republic of Benin.

Depuis plus de 40 ans, des Projets ont été conçus et mis en œuvre au Niger pour assurer le développement socio-économique mais force et de constater que les résultats atteints n’ont pas été à la hauteur des espoirs. Quinze années durant, le doctorant a travaillé au sein de Projets et programmes en qualité d'agent de développement. Le doctorant voulait à travers cette thèse comprendre les raisons de la prédominance et des limites de l’approche projet/programme à pérenniser les actions qu’ils initient et à avoir des impacts durables sur la pauvreté. A partir de l’analyse de la littérature et des expériences de projet auquel il a participé, il a exploré le concept de pauvreté en l’appliquant au Niger et a caractérisé la notion de projet et programme. Il a illustré ses propos à travers l’analyse de l’évolution sur quarante ans du village de M’Bida, en terme de pauvreté. La recherche engagée a permis d’aboutir à un certain nombre de résultats. Au Niger, la pauvreté est un phénomène dynamique, complexe, multidimensionnelle avec interactions entre facteurs. Toutefois, c’est la dimension socio-culturelle qui est déterminante dans la lutte contre la pauvreté. Les projets constituent un univers d’acteurs et de pratiques sociales. Les agents des projets et programmes manquent d’outils pour intégrer dans leurs modes d’intervention les stratégies des individus et groupes sociaux, localement dominants d’une part et extrêmement vulnérables d’autre part. Le manque d’évaluation post-projet ne permet pas d’appréhender les impacts durables, et de capitaliser les « bonnes pratiques ». Face à ces différentes contraintes, le doctorant propose la généralisation de l’approche territoriale pour contribuer à lever les blocages des approches projets et programmes. / Since more than forty years, projects have been elaborated and implemented in Niger to insure the socioeconomical development. But unfortunately the expected results have not been satisfactory.For fifteen years, the doctorand has been working with programs and projects as an agent of development. Through this Thesis, he wanted to understand the reasons of the predominance and limits of the program|project approach to perpetuate actions that they initiated so as to have sustainable impacts on poverty. Through an analysis of literature and experiences of the projects in which he participated, he explored the concept of poverty by applying it in Niger and has characterized the concept of program and project. He has justified his words through the analysis of the evolution of the village of M’BIDA within a period of forty years as regards to poverty. The research that has been implemented helped in achieving some results. In Niger, poverty is a multidimensional, complicated and dynamic phenomenon with interactions among factors. However, the socio-cultural dimension is a determining factor in the fight against poverty Projects constitute a world of actors and social practices. Projects and programs agents do not have means to integrate in their methods of intervention strategies of population and social groups that are locally important on one hand and those of extremely vulnerable population on the other hand. The lack of post project evaluation does not help in evaluating the sustainable impacts and to capitalize the good practices. Considering the various contrasts the doctorand suggests the generalization of the territorial approach to contribute in solving difficulties related to the approaches of projects and programs.