Metastasis Associated in Colon Cancer 1 (MACC1) ist ein prognostischer und prädiktiver Biomarker für Tumorprogression und Fernmetastasierung von Darmkrebs. Der exponentielle Anstieg der MACC1-verbundenen Publikationen seit dessen Entdeckung im Jahr 2009 verdeutlicht Mitwirkung von MACC1 am Krankheitsfortschritt vieler solider Tumore. Dies umfasst sich nicht nur die erhöhte Tumorinvasion und Metastasierung, sondern ebenso erhöhte Tumorangiogenese, dessen Stammzellfähigkeit und die Vermeidung von Apoptose. Obwohl unsere Forschungsarbeiten in den letzten Jahren neue Erkenntnisse über die Auswirkung von MACC1 in der Tumorprogression brachten, ist über dessen Proteinstruktur und der damit verbundenen Funktion in physiologischen Prozessen wenig bekannt. In dieser Arbeit wird zum ersten Mal die Rolle von MACC1 in der Clathrin-abhängigen Endozytose (CME) untersucht. Nach massenspektrometrischer Analyse des MACC1-Interaktoms wurde die Proteinbindung von MACC1 und den CME-verbundenen Faktoren CLTC, DNM2 und AP-2α, bzw. dem CME-Cargo TfR experimentell bestätigt. Davon ausgehend wurde der Endozytoseweg von TfR und MACC1-abhängige Änderungen in dessen Oberflächenverteilung, Internalisierung, Recycling und Proteinabbau mittels neu etablierter Methoden untersucht und ergab einen deutlichen Einfluss von MACC1 auf die Internalisierung und das Recycling von TfR. Daraufhin wurden durch Sequenzanalyse der MACC1-Proteinstruktur vorhergesagte N-terminale Interaktionsbereiche mit CME-Faktoren betrachtet, die eine Clathrin-Box sowie NPF- bzw. DPF-Motive umfassen. Deletionsvarianten von MACC1 wurden zunächst auf ihre Interaktionsfähigkeit mit CLTC, DNM2 und TfR getestet, deren subzelluläre Lokalisation bestimmt, sowie deren Einfluss auf den Endozytoseweg von TfR geprüft. Das erhöhte Recycling von TfR in Abhängigkeit von MACC1 wurde für EGFR als wichtigen Vertreter von krebsrelevanten Rezeptor-Tyrosinkinasen überprüft. Die Analyse des TfR-EGFR gekoppelten frühen Endozytosewegs ergab eine erhöhte Recyclingrate des Rezeptors in verschiedenen MACC1-überexprimierenden Zelllinien. Um den Einfluss der N-terminalen Interaktionsbereiche von MACC1 auf den Endozytoseweg von EGFR zu verstehen, wurden die MACC1-Deletionsvarianten nicht nur auf Änderungen im Verlauf der EGFR-Endozytose geprüft, sondern ebenfalls auf die Aktivierung des Rezeptors sowie nachgelagerter Signaltransduktoren wie PI3K/AKT und ERK1/2. Die Wichtigkeit der Interaktionsbereiche von MACC1 wurde durch eine Analyse der EGF-induzierten Zellproliferation bestätigt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit, die die Rolle von MACC1 in der Endozytose beschreiben, erweitern die Interventionsmöglichkeiten gegenüber der Fernmetastasierung solider Tumore und könnten helfen, das Überleben betroffener Patienten zu verlängern. / Metastasis Associated in Colon Cancer 1 (MACC1) is a newly discovered prognostic and predictive biomarker associated with tumor progression and metastasis development. Since our first report concerning MACC1 in 2009, MACC1-related research has been exponentially increasing. At present, MACC1 involvement in the progression of many cancer types has become increasingly clear. MACC1 does not only promote invasion and metastasis formation, but it also induces angiogenesis, stemness and prevents apoptosis. Although in the last years our research concerning MACC1 gained new insights into cancer progression, little is known about its structural role and functions in physiological processes. In this thesis, I will address for the first time the role of MACC1 during CME (clathrin-mediated endocytosis). Importantly, MACC1’s role in CME was first suggested by interactome analysis. Thus, MACC1’s CME interactors (CLTC, DNM2, AP2α and TfR), were first identified and validated. In addition, MACC1’s impact on TfR endocytic traffic was addressed by studying its effect on surface distribution, uptake, recycling and degradation of the receptor with pioneering and newly established methods. As a result of this research, MACC1 shows a clear impact on TfR internalization and recycling. Thus, the present work dissects the MACC1 protein structure containing predicted CME domains such as clathrin box, NPFs and DPF. By deleting these domains, first the impact on the binding between MACC1 and CLTC, DNM2 and TfR were analyzed. Also, we characterized the distribution of MACC1 in the cell depending on the presence of its CME domains, and then I addressed their specific impact during TfR endocytic traffic. After we elucidated the MACC1-dependent increase in TfR recycling, we compared its newly discovered function during EGFR endocytic traffic. By analyzing TfR -EGFR coupled early endocytic traffic during EGF-stimulated internalization in MACC1 overexpressing cell lines, we discovered that MACC1 promotes faster recycling of EGFR to PM, in two different cell lines. In order to understand the MACC1 CME domains impact on EGFR endocytic traffic, we dissected not only EGFR endocytic fate in MACC1 CME mutant cell lines but also the impact on EGFR trans-activation after EGF-stimulated internalization and downstream signaling, in particular, AKT and ERK1/2. To conclude with functional analysis, we also addressed MACC1 CME domains impact on cell proliferation revealing that CME domains integrity is important for efficient cell proliferation. The present work sheds new light on MACC1’s role during endocytosis, opening a possibility of intervention on metastasis development in CRC to improve the survival of patients.

Costimulation blockade protocols are promising alternatives to the use of chronic immunosuppression for promoting long-term allograft survival. However, the efficacy of costimulation blockade-based protocols is decreased by environmental insults such as viral infections. For example, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection at the time of costimulation blockade treatment abrogates skin allograft survival in mice. In this dissertation, we test the hypothesis that viruses shorten allograft survival by activating the innate immune system through pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), such as toll-like receptors (TLRs). To investigate the role of innate immunity in shortening allograft survival, costimulation blockade-treated mice were co-injected with TLR2 (Pam3Cys), TLR3 (polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid, poly(I:C)), TLR4 (lipopolysaccharide, LPS), or TLR9 (CpG DNA) agonists, followed by transplantation with skin allografts 7 days later. Costimulation blockade prolonged skin allograft survival that was shortened in mice coinjected with TLR agonists. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of this observation, we used synchimeric mice, which circulate trace populations of anti-H2b transgenic alloreactive CD8+ T cells. In synchimeric mice treated with costimulation blockade, co-administration of all four TLR agonists prevented deletion of alloreactive CD8+ T cells. These alloreactive CD8+ T cells 1) expressed the proliferation marker Ki-67, 2) upregulated CD44, and 3) failed to undergo apoptosis. We also demonstrate that costimulation blockade-treated CD8α-deficient mice exhibit prolonged allograft survival when co-injected with LPS. These data suggest that TLR agonists shorten allograft survival by impairing the apoptosis of alloreactive CD8+T cells. We further delineate the mechanism by which TLR agonists shorten allograft survival by demonstrating that LPS and poly(I:C) fail to shorten allograft survival in IFNRI- deficient mice. Interestingly, the ability of poly(I:C) to more potently induce IFN-α/β than LPS correlates with its superior abilities to shorten islet allograft survival and induce allo-specific CTL activity as measured by an in vivo cytotoxicity assay. The ability to shorten allograft survival and induce IFN-α/β is a TLR-dependent process for LPS, but is a TLR-independent process for poly(I:C). Strikingly, the injection of IFN-β impairs alloreactive CD8+T cell deletion and shortens allograft survival, similar to LPS and poly(I:C). These data suggest that LPS and poly(I:C) shorten allograft survival by inducing IFN-α/β through two different mechanisms. Finally, we present data showing that viruses (LCMV, Pichinde virus, murine cytomegalovirus and vaccinia virus) impair alloreactive CD8+T cell deletion and shorten allograft survival, in a manner comparable to LPS and poly(I:C). Similar to LPS, LCMV and MCMV exhibit an impaired ability to shorten allograft survival in MyD88-deficient mice. These data suggest that the MyD88 pathway is required for certain viruses and TLR-agonists to shorten allograft survival. In this dissertation, we present data supporting an important role for TLRs and IFN- α/β in shortening allograft induced by costimulation blockade. Our findings suggest that targeting these pathways during the peri-transplant period may enhance the efficacy of costimulation blockade protocols in the clinic.

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La toxine bactérienne de Shiga se lie au glycosphingolipide (GSL) globotriaosylcéramide (Gb3) afin d’entrer par endocytose dans les cellules en utilisant une voie dépendante et indépendante de la clathrine. Dans la voie indépendante de la clathrine, la toxine de Shiga réorganise les lipides de la membrane de façon à imposer une contrainte mécanique sur la bicouche, conduisant ainsi à la formation de pic d’invagination d'endocytose profonds et étroits. Mécaniquement ce phénomène n’est pas encore compris, notamment il reste énigmatique, comment se traduisent les propriétés géométriques de l’agrégation des glycosphingolipides GSLS et de la toxine. Dans mon travail de thèse, via l’utilisation de la sous-unité B de la toxine de Shiga (STxB) comme un modèle, différentes espèces moléculaires de son récepteur Gb3 ont été synthétisés avec des structures délibérément choisis. Les études réalisées par imagerie de haute résolution et par la modélisation informatique ont permis d’élucider les contraintes mécano-chimique sous-jacente conduisant à une réorganisation efficace qui a pour résultat l’agrégation de la toxine et la réorganisation des lipides. En combinant des expériences de simulation sur ordinateur de dynamique des particules dissipatives (DPD) et des expériences sur des modèles de membranes cellulaires, nous avons fourni la preuve de l’induction d’une force de fluctuation-membrane, de type « force de Casimir », conduisant à l'agrégation des molécules de toxines associées à la membrane à des échelles de longueur mésoscoiques. Nous avons observé et mesuré, en outre la condensation lipidique induite par la toxine, quantitativement sur des monocouches de Langmuir en utilisant la réflectivité des rayons X (XR) et par la mesure de la diffraction des rayons X par incidence rasante (GIXD), fournissant ainsi une preuve directe de l'hypothèse que la toxine a le potentiel de réduire de façon asymétrique la surface moléculaire sur la partie membranaire exoplasmique, ce qui conduit à une déformation locale de la membrane. Durant ma thèse, nos efforts ont été consacrés à la réalisation de nouveaux glycosphinolipides (GSL) comme outils chimiques à visée biologique. Par ailleurs, une nouvelle stratégie de reconstitution de GSL fonctionnels sur la membrane cellulaire, basée sur une réaction de ligation de type « click » entre un glycosyl-cyclooctyne et un azido-sphingosine a été étudiée. Les résultats obtenus sur les cellules se sont avérés beaucoup moins efficace que ceux in vitro. Une poursuite de l'optimisation de cette méthodologie est actuellement en cours. Une sonde fluorescente du glycosphinolipide Gb3, marquée à l’Alexa Fluor 568 lui-même lié par l'intermédiaire d'un bras PEG-α à la position de la chaîne acyle, a été synthétisée. Cette sonde se lie à la STxB sur couche mince de TLC, mais pas sur des membranes modèles. D'autres améliorations sont discutées. / Bacterial Shiga toxins bind to the glycosphingolipid (GSL) globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) to enter cells by clathrin-dependent and independent endocytosis. In the clathrin-independent pathway, Shiga toxin reorganizes membrane lipids in a way such as to impose mechanical strain onto the bilayer, thus leading to the formation of deep and narrow endocytic pits. Mechanistically how this occurs is not yet understood, and notably how the geometric properties of toxin-GSLs complexes translate into function has remained enigmatic. In my thesis work, using the B-subunit of Shiga toxin (STxB) as a model, different molecular species of its receptor Gb3 have been synthesized with deliberately chosen structures, coupled with high resolution imaging and computational modeling, to understand the underlying mechano-chemical constraints leading to efficient toxin clustering and lipids reorganization. By combining dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) computer simulation and experiments on cell and model membranes, we provided evidence that a membrane fluctuation-induced force, termed Casimir-like force, drives the aggregation of tightly membrane-associated toxin molecules at mesoscopic length scales. Furthermore, toxin-induced lipid condensation was observed and measured quantitatively on Langmuir monolayers using X-ray reflectivity (XR) and grazing incidence x-ray diffraction (GIXD), thereby providing direct evidence for the hypothesis that the toxin has the potential to asymmetrically reduce the molecular area of the exoplasmic membrane leaflet, leading to local membrane deformation. During my PhD, effort was also invested to develop new GSL tools applied to the biological setting. A novel strategy based on the Cu-free click reaction between glycosyl-cyclooctyne and azido-sphingosine was designed with the goal to functionally incorporate GSLs into cellular membranes. Following the synthesis work, click reactions have been performed in solution and on cells. Compared to the former, results on cells were far less efficient. Further optimization is currently ongoing. A fluorescently labeled Gb3 probe with Alexa Fluor 568 coupled via a PEG linker to the α-position of the acyl chain, was synthesized, to which STxB bound on TLCs, but not on model membranes. Further improvements are discussed.