[Truncated abstract] Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease which manifests clinically as personality changes and global cognitive decline resulting in a loss of function, ultimately leading to death. Whilst causal genetic mutations have been identified, accounting for a small proportion of familial cases, the vast majority of all AD cases are late onset and idiopathic. However, a number of risk factors have been identified, including age associated changes in the reproductive hormones – estrogen and the gonadotropins. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies have implicated both estrogen and the gonadotropins in the regulation of the neurotoxic beta amyloid (Aß) peptide, accumulation of which is thought to be a key pathogenic event in the development of AD, but the role of these hormones in the etiology and pathogenesis of AD remains contentious. The aim of this thesis was to further understanding of the role of female reproductive hormones in modulating susceptibility to AD. The role of menopausal hormone dysregulation in behavior, cognitive decline and Aß-related neuropathology was examined in vivo in 4 studies using animal models of AD and menopause. The first two studies used a mouse model of AD expressing a human PS1 mutation (PS1KI) to examine the effects of ovariectomy as a model of menopause on cognition and neuropathology. Ovariectomy was found to selectively impair learning on a spatial working memory task without affecting working memory recall or reference memory performance. However, this cognitive impairment was not associated with any changes in Aß accumulation or oxidative stress. ... However, these findings cannot explain the lack of effect of estrogen supplementation on Aß levels. It is possible that supra-physiological doses of estrogen are necessary to yield anti-amyloidogenic and anti-oxidative benefits in ovariectomized sheep. It is becoming clear that the relationship between hormone changes at menopause and risk of AD may be more complicated than previously conceived. This study has begun to tease apart the relative contributions of estrogen and the gonadotropin hormones in the modulation of Aß, accumulation of which may confer susceptibility to AD. The findings presented indicate that the gonadotropins may play an important role in the regulation of AD-related behavior and cognition. The observed functional effects of the gonadotropins may also have implications for our understanding of behavioral and cognitive changes occurring during reproductive events. Based on the evidence presented here, combined with previous literature, it is clear that both estrogen and the gonadotropins are involved in the modulation of Aß accumulation, however, elucidation of the circumstances necessary to elicit these effects and their clinical relevance to humans will require further investigation. These findings contribute to a more sophisticated understanding of the post-menopausal hormonal milieu, recognizing the role of the gonadotropin hormones and that gonadal estrogen depletion does not necessarily result in brain estrogen depletion.

La maladie d'Alzheimer (AD) est une pathologie neurodégénérative caractérisée par une atrophie cérébrale progressive associée à une mort neuronale. Plus récemment, il a été suggéré que la perte des fonctions cognitives survenant pendant la maladie s'explique principalement par une atteinte au niveau synaptique préalable à la mort neuronale. Ainsi il a été observé que le peptide β-amyloïde ou Aβ constituant des plaques séniles, l'un des deux marqueurs histologiques de la maladie, existe sous une forme soluble/oligomérique (Aβo), et cette conformation lui confère des propriétés synaptotoxiques. L'Aβo agit préférentiellement sur le compartiment post-synaptique des synapses excitatrices également appelées épines dendritiques, structures sub-cellulaires dont la forme est régie par un cytosquelette d'actine riche et dynamique. Parmi les nombreuses hypothèses émises pour expliquer la synaptotoxicité de l'Aβo, il a été suggéré que la disparition des épines était due à une dépolymérisation anormale des filaments d'actine par une enzyme : la cofiline. Pourtant des données récentes ont montré à l'inverse une phosphorylation/inactivation de la cofiline dans le cortex frontal de patients AD, mais aussi dans le cerveau de la lignée de souris APP/PS-1, modèle de AD. De plus, des analyses morphologiques des synapses de la région CA1 chez la souris APP/PS-1 ont montré une réduction de la densité d'épines, associée à une augmentation du volume des épines survivantes. Les variations de volume de la tête de l'épine sont des phénomènes très fréquents lors d'une induction de potentialisation à long terme, le corrélat électrophysiologique de la mémoire.. Au cours de ma thèse, nous avons cherché dans un premier temps à caractériser les altérations morphologiques des épines dendritiques chez la souris APP/PS-1 par microscopie électronique. Nous avons pu confirmer que dès 3 mois, les synapses excitatrices sont moins nombreuses, que les épines restantes sont plus larges, mais surtout, que l'épaisseur de la densité post-synaptique n'est plus proportionnelle à la surface de l'épine, ce qui suggère un découplage entre modifications morphologiques et fonctionnelles. Nous avons également mis en évidence la présence de spinules anormales sur les épines.En utilisant des cultures primaires de neurones corticaux, nous avons pu montrer qu'un traitement aigu avec de l'Aβo induit la formation de protrusions riches en actine filamenteuse ressemblant aux spinules observés chez les animaux transgéniques. En purifiant la fraction post-synaptique, nous avons montré que cette formation de protrusions est concomitante à une phosphorylation anormale de la cofiline induite par l'Aβo. Ainsi l'inactivation de la cofiline qui en résulte pourrait être à l'origine d'une stabilisation et donc d'un allongement des filaments d'actine synaptique conduisant à la formation des protrusions. Cette inactivation de la cofiline a également été retrouvée chez la souris APP/PS-1 et chez l'humain. En conclusion, l'ensemble des résultats de cette thèse montre que l'Aβo induit des déformations morphologiques des épines, qui se caractérisent par la formation de protrusions membranaires ressemblant à des spinules. Ces protrusions ne sont pas activité-dépendantes, mais proviennent plutôt d'une dérégulation de l'activité enzymatique de la cofiline par l'Aβo. / Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative pathology associated with progressive cerebral atrophy linked to neuronal death. It has been recently suggested that loss of cognitive functions occurring during the disease was a consequence of synapse dysfunction and prior to neuronal death. Thus, it has been observed that Amyloïd-β peptide (Aβ), the main component of senile plaques, one histological marker of the disease, also exists as soluble/oligomeric Aβ (Aβo). This Aβ conformation is known to be synaptotoxic. Aβo acts preferentially on the post-synaptic compartment of excitatory synapses, also named dendritic spines, sub-cellular micro-domains containing dynamic and filamentous actin as their main cytoskeleton component. Among numerous theories explaining Aβo synaptotoxicity, it has been suggested that spine collapsing was due to an abnormal actin depolymerisation through Cofilin enzyme. Yet, recent evidences inversely showed Cofilin phosphorylation/inactivation in frontal cortex of AD patients and in the APP/PS-1 transgenic mice brain, an AD animal model. Moreover, synapse morphological analysis in the CA1 region of APP/PS-1 mice showed a reduction in spine density and an increase in spine head volume of remaining ones. Spine head volume variations are commonly occurring during induction of Long Term Potentiation, the electrophysiological correlate of memory.During my thesis, we firstly characterized APP/PS-1 mice dendritic spine morphological alterations using electron microscopy. We confirmed that even at 3 month-old, excitatory synapses are fewer, but also that remaining ones display larger surfaces. In addition, PSD thickness is not proportional to spine surface anymore, which suggests an uncoupling between functional and morphological modifications. We also demonstrated the presence of abnormal shaped spinules onto spines.Using primary cortical neuron cultures, we demonstrated that acute Aβo treatment induces the formation of filamentous actin enriched protrusions, resembling spinules observed in transgenic mice. By purifying post-synaptic protein fraction, we showed that protrusions formation is correlated to an abnormal Cofilin phosphorylation/inactivation by Aβo. Thus, resulting Cofilin inactivation could trigger actin filament stabilization, leading to protrusion formation. We also found Cofilin phosphorylation in APP/PS-1 mice and in AD brains. Taken together, these results show that Aβo triggers dendritic spine abnormal alterations, characterized by the formation of membrane protrusions ressembling spinules. These protrusions are not activity-dependant, but may instead originate from a disregulation of Cofilin enzymatic activity by Aβo.

[pt] A doença de Alzheimer (DA) é atualmente a forma mais comum de demência. A perda sináptica no nível do sistema neurotransmissor, a presença de placas amilóides extracelulares e emaranhados neurofibrilares intracelulares são importantes eventos que diferenciam, no nível celular, a DA dentre outras demências. Do ponto de vista químico, é bem conhecido que o peptídeo A(beta) coordena os metais fisiológicos, como Cu e Zn, os quais, no cérebro de pacientes com DA, estão mal distribuídos e concentrados em placas amilóides. Apesar da agregação do peptídeo A(beta) ser uma das características mais marcantes da patogênese da DA, a função das placas extracelulares composta por esse peptídeo não é totalmente compreendida. A hipótese que a neurotoxicidade de A(beta) é melhor explicada pela sua forma oligomérica é bastante aceita pela comunidade cientifica. Há evidências que suportam a ligação entre metais fisiológicos e oligomerização de A(beta). Os compostos atenuadores de interação metal-proteína (MPACs, do inglês, Metal-Protein Attenuating Compounds) são uma classe promissora de compostos para o tratamento da DA que diferem dos agentes quelantes fortes, porque, ao invés de remover metais sistematicamente, esses corrigem interações anormais com A(beta), inibindo a oligomerização de A(beta), além de prevenir reações redox que podem gerar espécies reativas de oxigenio tóxicas. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho avalia quatro compostos com potencial para atuar como MPAC, a saber, INHHQ, HPCIH, H2QBS e INHOVA. Entre esses, três (INHHQ, HPCIH e INHOVA) pertencem à classe química de aroíl-hidrazonas. A estabilidade de cada composto foi testada durante 30 h em misturas de água/DMSO em diferentes concentrações, a fim de definir a melhor condição para os estudos biológicos, e um padrão de estabilidade adequado foi observado para todos os compostos, com exceção do INHOVA, que se demonstrou muito sensível à hidrólise. INHHQ, HPCIH e H2QBS foram analisados in vitro para avaliar a capacidades de competir com A(beta) para Cu e Zn, por análises de RMN (1)H e (1)H x (15)N HSQC: INHHQ e HPCIH apresentaram perfis de sequestro de metais similares e H2QBS mostrou uma maior capacidade para a remoção de íons metálicos do A(beta). Estudos celulares foram realizados a fim de avaliar a citotoxicidade. INHHQ e HPCIH apresentaram os perfis mais promissores, sugerindo que tais toxicidades sejam relacionadas à sobre-expressão da proteína precursora amiloide (APP, do inglês: Amyloid precursor protein). Ambas as substâncias foram avaliadas quanto a sua capacidade de afetar a rota do APP por meio de análises proteômicas em uma linha celular que sobre-expressa APP. Os resultados sugeriram a possível interação dos compostos com as gama-secretases. Foram realizados ensaios de toxicidade aguda in vivo, não apresentando letalidade em doses de até 200 mg kg(-1) . Foram avaliados parâmetros bioquímicos, tais como as concentrações de GSH e Fe, Cu e Zn em cérebro, fígado, coração e rins. Os resultados sugeriram que H2QBS possui alta capacidade para deslocar os biometais em ratos, quando administrado em doses elevadas. Estudos de efetividade in vivo foram realizados para avaliar a capacidade da substância mais promissora, ou seja, INHHQ, de afetar o comportamento em modelos animais. Para esse propósito, ansiedade e memória foram avaliadas em camundongos, através dos testes de Labirinto em Cruz Elevado, Campo Aberto e Reconhecimento de Novo Objeto. Os resultados indicaram que o tratamento com INHHQ não altera a resposta defensiva relacionada ao medo/ansiedade e que doses de 10 mg kg(-1) ou maiores induzem comprometimento cognitivo temporário em camundongos saudáveis. Finalmente, provou-se que uma dosagem INHHQ inócua de 1 mg kg(-1) evita problemas de memória a curto e longo prazos induzidos pela infusão de oligômeros de Aβ em camundongos. Os resultados relatados nesta tese apontam para o INHHQ como um bom candidato p / [en] Alzheimer s disease (AD) is currently the most common form of dementia worldwide. The synaptic loss at the neurotransmitter system level and the presence of extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are major events that identify AD among other dementias, at the cellular level. From a chemical point of view, it is well-known that A(beta) peptide coordinates physiological metals, such as Cu and Zn, which, in AD patients brain, are poorly distributed and concentrated in amyloid plaques. Despite the fact that aggregation of the A(beta) peptide is one of the most important features of AD pathogenesis, the function of the extracellular plaques composed by this peptide is not fully understood. The hypothesis that A(beta) neurotoxicity is best explained by its oligomeric form is well accepted. There are evidences supporting the link between physiological metals and oligomerization of A(beta). Metal-Protein Attenuating Compounds (MPACs), a promising class of compounds for the management of AD and differ from strong chelating agents, once, instead of systematically removing metals, they correct abnormal interactions with A(beta), inhibiting the A(beta) oligomerization, as well as preventing redox reactions that can ultimately generate harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this context, the present work evaluates four compounds with potential to act as MPACs, namely, INHHQ, HPCIH, H2QBS and INHOVA. Among them, three substances (INHHQ, HPCIH and INHOVA) belong to the chemical class of aroylhydrazones. The stability of each compound was tested over 30 h in water/DMSO mixtures of different concentrations in order to define the best condition for the biological studies and a suitable stability pattern was observed for all compounds, with the exception of INHOVA, which showed high sensibility to hydrolysis. INHHQ, HPCIH and H2QBS were analyzed in vitro in order to evaluate their ability to compete with A(beta) for Cu and Zn, by (1)H and (1)H x (15)N HSQC NMR analyses: a similar metalsequestering profile for INHHQ and HPCIH was observed, H2QBS, on the other hand, showed a higher capacity for the removal of metal ions from A(beta). Cell studies were performed in order to assess cytotoxicity. INHHQ and HPCIH showed the most promising profiles, suggesting that their toxicity was related to the amyloid precursor protein (APP) overexpression. Both substances were then evaluated concerning their capacity to affect the APP pathway by means of proteomic analyses in an exposed APP-overexpressing cell line. Results suggest possible interaction of both compounds with γ-secretases. In vivo acute toxicity assays were performed, showing no lethality at doses up to 200 mg kg(-1). Several biochemical parameters, such as GSH and Fe, Cu and Zn concentrations in brain, liver, heart and kidneys were evaluated. The results suggested that H2QBS present high capacity to displace biometals in rats, when high doses are administered. In vivo effectiveness studies were performed in order to evaluate the capacity of the most promising substance, i.e., INHHQ, of affecting behavior in animal models. For this purpose, anxiety and memory were evaluated in mice, through Elevated Plus Maze, Open Field and Novel Object Recognition tests. The results indicated that INHHQ treatment does not alter the fear / anxiety-related defensive responses and that doses of 10 mg kg(-1) or higher induce temporary cognitive impairment in healthy mice. Finally, it was proved that an innocuous INHHQ dosage of 1 mg kg (-1) does prevent short- and long-term memory impairment induced by A(beta) oligomers infusion in mice. The findings reported in this thesis definitively point to INHHQ as a good candidate for further pre-clinical trials, as a potential MPAC for AD treatment.

Estudos demonstram que a indução do estresse oxidativo pelo peptídeo beta amiloide (A?) exerce um importante papel no desencadeamento da excitotoxicidade neuronal o que pode resultar no desenvolvimento de doenças neurodegenerativas. A formação do peptídeo A? se deve a alterações na proteína precursora de amiloide (APP) que é clivada para a formação do peptídeo A?. Por sua vez, os mecanismos de ação do A? no S.N.C. ocorrem através da sinalização do receptor NMDA (N-metil D-aspartato) receptor este que quando ativado pelo glutamato exerce importante papel fisiológico no S.N.C., visto que apresenta atividade ionotrópica que permite o influxo de Na+ e Ca2+ para as células neuronais, auxiliando nos processos de formação da memória e aprendizagem. Entretanto, apesar do seu papel fisiológico, a ativação excessiva do receptor NMDA é fortemente correlacionada com lesões no S.N.C. decorrente da excessiva permeabilidade do íon Ca2+ para o citosol das células neuronais. Com isso as concentrações de glutamato na fenda sináptica são estritamente controladas para que não haja ativação excessiva dos receptores com atividade glutamatérgica, como o receptor NMDA. Estudos indicam que o transporte de glutamina/glutamato através da barreira hematoencefálica é menor do que de outros aminoácidos, sendo que cerca de 25% a 30% do transporte de aminoácidos dos vasos sanguíneos para o cérebro através da barreira hematoencefálica é ocupado pelo aminoácido leucina, sendo este um grande responsável pela síntese de glutamato/glutamina no S.N.C. Com isso, estudos tem demonstrado que dietas enriquecidas com aminoácidos de cadeia ramificada, dentre eles a leucina, é responsável por alterar o metabolismo do glutamato e aumentar a susceptibilidade à excitotoxicidade de células neurais. A fim de testar esta hipótese utilizamos um modelo de cultura de células de neuroblastoma humano e realizamos o tratamento com diferentes concentrações de aminoácido leucina associado com o tratamento de peptídeo beta-amilóide. Realizamos as analises de citotoxicidade (LDH), viabilidade celular (MTT) e apoptose celular por citometria de fluxo (marcação com PE Anexina V e 7-AAD). Nossos resultados indicam que houve diferenças apenas entre o controle em relação aos demais grupos de tratamento / Studies demonstrate that induction of oxidative stress by beta amyloid peptide (A?) plays an important role in triggering neuronal excitotoxicity which can result in the development of neurodegenerative diseases. The formation of A? peptide are due to changes in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) which is cleaved to form the peptide A?. On the other hand, the mechanisms of action of A? in the C.N.S. occur through signaling of the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor that when activated by glutamate plays an important physiological role in the C.N.S., as has inotropic activity that allows the influx of Na+ and Ca2+ into the neuronal cells, assisting in procedures of memory formation and learning. However, despite its physiological role, the excessive activation of the NMDA receptor is strongly correlated with C.N.S. lesions due to excess permeability of Ca2+ ions into the cytosol of neuronal cells. Thus the concentrations of glutamate in the synaptic cleft are strictly controlled so that there is excessive activation of receptors with glutamatergic activity, as the NMDA receptor. Studies indicate that the transport of glutamine/glutamate across the blood brain barrier is lower than that of other amino acids, of which about 25% to 30% of the amino acid transport blood vessels to the brain through the blood brain barrier is occupied by leucine this being one largely responsible for the synthesis of glutamate/glutamine in the C.N.S. Thus, studies have shown that diets enriched in branched chain amino acids, including leucine, are responsible for altering the metabolism of glutamate and excitotoxic increase susceptibility to neural cells. To test this hypothesis we used a cell culture model of human neuroblastoma and carry out the treatment with different concentrations of leucine associated with the processing of amyloid-beta peptide. We performed analysis of cytotoxicity (LDH), cell viability (MTT assay) and apoptosis using flow cytometry (Annexin V staining with PE and 7-AAD). Our results indicate that there were differences only between the control compared to the other treatment groups

Åldrande befolkningar är en global utmaning särskilt med ökande incidens av åldersrelateradesjukdomar, särskilt Alzheimers sjukdom (AD). AD är den mest förekommande formen avdemens. Sjukdomen, kännetecknas av kognitiv försämring, med varierande grad avminnesförlust och funktionsnedsättning. Alzheimers patologi involverar ackumulering av β-amyloidpeptider och hyperfosforylerat tauprotein,vilka bidrar till sjukdomens progression. Östrogen samt östrogenreceptorerna påverkarmånga kroppsfunktioner och är särskilt viktiga för neuroprotektion och reglering av genuttryck.Trots kunskapsframsteg är mekanismerna bakom könsskillnader i AD och östrogenets effekterinte helt förstådda, vilket understryker behovet av vidare forskning för att utveckla effektivabehandlingar och förstå sjukdomens underliggande biologi. Syftet med denna studie är att djupare förstå östrogens roll i Alzheimers sjukdom, samt attundersöka utveckling, respektive förbättring av AD beroende på östrogens nivåer i kroppen.För att uppnå syftet, gjordes en systematisk litteratursökning på internationella databaser.Artiklarna som inkluderas i studien granskades och dess relevans bedömdes med noggrannhetvia urvals steg. Endast relevanta artiklar som uppfyller inklusionskraven inkluderades för attbesvara syftet och frågeställningen. Det visades att behandling med östradiol förbättrade minnet hos AD-musmodeller. E2-behandlade möss uppvisade lägre nivåer av β-amyloid plack och minskad tau-fosforyleringjämfört med obehandlade AD-möss. Långvarig hormonbehandling, särskilt hos kvinnor sompåbörjar behandlingen vid en yngre ålder, kan öka risken för Alzheimers sjukdom genom ettöverskott av östrogen, vilket belyser östrogenets komplexa roll i sjukdomens patogenes ochbehandling. Östrogenreceptorerna spelar en roll i regleringen av tau-fosforylering, där ERαöveruttryck ökade tau-fosforyleringen och ERβ överuttryck minskade den. Effekten avöstrogenbehandling på APOE-genotypen i möss visade genotypberoende effekt. Östrogenerbjuder en potentiellt skyddande roll mot Alzheimers sjukdom men effekterna är beroende avindividuella och genetiska faktorer. Resultaten indikerar att östrogen har en potentiellskyddande effekt mot AD genom att modulera β-amyloid och tau-fosforylering samt genom attfrämja neurogenes. Dessa fynd understryker östrogens betydelse som ett potentiellt terapeutisktmål för AD, särskilt med tanke på de genetiska och hormonella faktorer som bidrar tillsjukdomsutvecklingen. Resultaten understryker vikten av försiktighet vidhormonersättningsterapi och behovet av ytterligare forskning för att förstå de genetiska ochhormonella faktorernas inverkan på risken för Alzheimers.

No / Astrocyte reactivity is implicated in the neuronal loss underlying Alzheimer's disease. Curcumin has been shown to reduce astrocyte reactivity, though the exact pathways underlying these effects are incompletely understood. Here we investigated the role of the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) conjugation in mediating this effect of curcumin. In beta-amyloid (Aβ)-treated astrocytes, morphological changes and increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) confirmed reactivity, which was accompanied by c-jun N-terminal kinase activation. Moreover, the levels of SUMO-1 conjugated proteins, as well as the conjugating enzyme, Ubc9, were decreased, with concomitant treatment with curcumin preventing these effects. Increasing SUMOylation in astrocytes, by over-expression of constitutively active SUMO-1, but not its inactive mutant, abrogated Aβ-induced increase in GFAP, suggesting astrocytes require SUMO-1 conjugation to remain non-reactive.

Amyloid beta (Aβ) has been postulated to be the principle initiator of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Therefore, understanding the underlying mechanisms of Aβ induced neurotoxicity in the early stages of AD would be essential for finding potential therapeutic targets of AD. Aβ-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD) has been shown to be a mitochondrial binding site for Aβ. Expression of ABAD has been found to be increased in brains of AD sufferers. Two dimensional electrophoresis studies have revealed that endophilin 1 was upregulated in Tg mAPP/ABAD mice brains as compared to Tg mAPP, Tg ABAD and non-Tg mice brains. Increased expression of endophilin 1 has also been found in brains of AD patients as compared to non-demented control brain tissues. Endophilin1 has been reported to regulate c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation. In this study, expression of dominant negative forms of endophilin 1 (DN-endophilin 1) in mouse cortical neurons exhibited a significant reduction of Aβ induced JNK activation. Furthermore, using cell counting methods, it was shown that the transfection of DN-endophilin 1 increased neuron survival after Aβ treatment. Aβ has also been proposed to disrupt the interaction of ABAD and Cyclophilin D (CypD), which would trigger mitochondrial permeable transition, thereby leading to neurotoxicity. For fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) analysis of the interaction of ABAD and CypD, a mitochondria targeted, EYFP tagged ABAD plasmid (pMito-ABAD-EYFP) and an ECFP tagged CypD (pCypD-ECFP) plasmid were developed. Positive FRET signals in SK-N-SH cells co-expressing pMito-ABAD-EYFP and pCypD-ECFP indicated that ABAD interacts with CypD in the mitochondria of mammalian cells. RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products) has been reported to bind to Aβ and mediate the toxic effects of Aβ peptides on neurons and microglia. It has been shown previously that Tg mAPP/DN-RAGE mice display preserved cognitive function as compared to Tg mAPP mice. To investigate possible mechanisms involved in rescuing cognitive function by RAGE blockage, two dimensional electrophoresis was used to analyze differential protein expression between Tg mAPP and Tg mAPP/DN-RAGE mice cortex. Altered expression of four proteins, including NADH dehydrogenase flavoprotein 2 (NDUFV2), glyoxalase 1 (GLO1), proteasome subunit beta type 4 (PSMB4, or β7 subunit of proteasome) and nitrilase family, member 2 (Nit2) have been observed between Tg mAPP/DN-RAGE mice cortex and Tg mAPP mice cortex. NDUFV2 is a 24kDa subunit of complex 1 which is involved in ATP synthesis. GLO1 is a cytosolic enzyme that plays a role the glutathione-dependent detoxification of α-oxoaldehydes, such as methylglyoxal. PSMB4 is a subunit of the 26s proteosome which is in the degradation of ubiquitinylated proteins. The function of Nit2 is still unclear.

The main histological feature of Alzheimer\'s disease is the presence of amyloid plaques in the patient\'s brain. The most abundant element of these plaques is the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ). Initially soluble, the peptide exhibits in solution an intricate equilibrium among monomeric, oligomeric (some of which are regarded as the toxic species) and fibrillar states, which prevents its crystallization and subsequent structural determination by X-ray diffraction. High-pressure nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has been used by our group to detect rare, high-energy monomeric Aβ (1-40) states, coexisting in equilibrium with oligomers and fibrils. This work aims to characterize the thermodynamics and the structure of the rare excited states of the Aβ peptide through the use of high pressure NMR. A large collection of NMR spectra of the Aβ (1-40) peptide as a function of pressure was recorded and analyzed. Secondary structure predictions revealed that the Aβ peptide adopts extended β-strand-like structures, similar to those found in amyloid-fibril structures. From the pressure curves of chemical shifts and cross-peak volumes, at least three monomeric states could be detected, which were thermodynamically characterized by the calculation of the variation of their Gibbs free energy (ΔGij) and molar partial volumes (ΔVij). The study of nuclear Overhauser effects (NOEs) and 3JHα-HN NMR couplings reinforces the existence of extended structures with β-strand propensity, both at ambient (0.1 MPa) and high (275 MPa) pressures. The interaction between the Aβ peptide and the D-peptides RD2 and RD2D3, D-enantiomeric fibril inhibitors, was also characterized. Our results indicate that the D-peptides recognize and bind to a more compact conformation of Aβ. The formation of the Aβ-D-peptide heterodimers ultimately prevents the formation of toxic oligomers, therefore representing a potential therapy against Alzheimer´s disease. Additionally, in the second chapter, we present results on the coiled-coils (CC) from group-III human septins (SEPT1, SEPT2, SEPT4 and SEPT5) also studied by NMR spectroscopy. Septins are GTP-binding proteins present in most eukaryotic organisms and capable of forming filaments, which are essential in cell division. In this study, we used 1H-1H-NOESY spectra to detect the orientation and helix pairings adopted by the C-terminal coiled-coils in solution. The NOE analysis, aided by back-calculated spectra, showed that the only sequence to show an antiparallel structure was SEPT2CC; all the others are parallel. However, the disappearance of specific peaks in the NMR spectrum of SEPT5CC caused by the attachment of a paramagnetic spin label indicates an antiparallel orientation, contrary to our other NMR result. A simple evaluation of the coiled-coil heptameric positions, based on the occurrence of each amino acid residue occupying each position, revealed that both orientations are equally stable. Despite being far less stable compared to other coiled-coils, both could exist physiologically. Other results from the group also suggest that these peptides could have the ability to form both parallel and antiparallel coiled-coils. We speculate that the antiparallel conformation might be related to cross-linking between filaments. / A principal característica histológica da doença de Alzheimer é a presença de placas amiloides no cérebro de pacientes. O constituinte mais abundante dessas placas é o peptídeo β-amiloide (Aβ). Inicialmente solúvel, o peptídeo exibe em solução um intrincado equilíbrio entre estados monoméricos, oligoméricos (alguns deles tidos como as espécies tóxicas) e fibrilares, o que impossibilita sua cristalização e posterior determinação estrutural por difração de raios-X. A espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN) de alta pressão foi utilizada por nosso grupo para detectar estados monoméricos raros e de alta energia do Aβ(1-40), coexistindo em equilíbrio com oligômeros e fibras. Esse trabalho visa caracterizar a termodinâmica e a estrutura dos estados excitados raros do peptídeo Aβ através do uso da RMN de alta pressão. Uma grande coleção de espectros de RMN do peptídeo Aβ(1-40) em função da pressão foi coletada e analisada. Predições de estrutura secundária revelaram que o peptídeo Aβ adota estruturas estendidas do tipo fitas-β, similares àquelas encontradas em estruturas de fibras amiloides. A partir das curvas de deslocamento químico e volume de pico pela pressão, ao menos três estados monoméricos puderam ser detectados, os quais foram termodinamicamente caracterizados através do cálculo da variação das suas energias livres de Gibbs (ΔGij) e volumes parciais molares (ΔVij). O estudo de efeitos Overhauser nucleares (NOEs) e de acoplamentos 3JHα-HN de RMN reforçam a existência de estruturas estendidas com propensão a fitas-β, tanto a pressão ambiente (0,1 MPa) quanto em alta pressão (275 MPa). A interação entre o peptídeo Aβ e os D-peptídeos RD2 e RD2D3, inibidores D-enatioméricos de fibras, também foi caracterizada. Nossos resultados indicam que os D-peptídeos reconhecem e se ligam a uma conformação mais compacta de Aβ. A formação dos heterodímeros Aβ-D-peptídeo previne, por fim, a formação dos oligômeros tóxicos, representando uma potencial terapia contra a doença de Alzheimer. Adicionalmente, no segundo capítulo, apresentamos resultados sobre os coiled-coils (CC) das septinas humanas do grupo III (SEPT1, SEPT2, SEPT4 e SEPT5) também estudados por espectroscopia de RMN. Septinas são proteínas ligantes de GTP presentes na maioria dos organismos eucarióticos e capazes de formar filamentos, os quais são essenciais à divisão celular. Nesse estudo, utilizamos espectros 1H-1H-NOESY a fim de detectar a orientação e o pareamento de hélices adotados pelos coiled-coils em solução. A análise dos NOEs, auxiliada por espectros retrocalculados, mostrou que a única sequência a mostrar uma estrutura antiparalela foi SEPT2CC; todas as outras são paralelas. Entretanto, o desaparecimento de picos específicos no espectro de RMN de SEPT5CC causado pela presença de um marcador paramagnético de spin indica uma orientação antiparalela, contrário ao nosso outro resultado de RMN. Uma avaliação simples das posições heptaméricas dos coiled-coils, baseada na ocorrência de cada resíduo de aminoácido em ocupar cada posição, revelou que ambas as orientações são igualmente estáveis. Apesar de serem bem menos estáveis comparadas a outros coiled-coils, ambas poderiam existir fisiologicamente. Outros resultados do grupo também sugerem que esses peptídeos poderiam formar tanto coiled-coils paralelos quanto antiparalelos. Nós especulamos que a conformação antiparalela pode estar relacionada a ligações cruzadas entre filamentos.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a chronic progressive neurological condition, clinically characterized by memory deficits, cognitive and physical impairment, and personality changes. Traditionally, AD was considered a type of protein folding disorder. Here, the concept of AD as an autoimmune disease of the innate immune system was developed. After exploring evolutionary connections between the AD peptide β-amyloid (Aβ) and known antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and elucidating the structural similarities between Aβ and AMPs, a mechanism of action for Aβ’s antimicrobial activity is proposed that is based on the compromise of bacterial membranes. Following these theoretical considerations, experimental evidence is presented for the production of Aβ by cells in response to infection, and for Aβ’s antibacterial and antiviral activity. Rooted in similarities of the cell membranes of neuronal and bacterial cells in terms of lipid composition and transmembrane potential, it is hypothesised that Aβ’s neurotoxicity is caused by its misguided attack on neurons as an AMP. In reversing the concept of Aβ as an AMP, the similarity of AMPs to Aβ is demonstrated in experiments revealing the neurotoxicity of two AMPs, LL 37, and cecropin A. To determine a mechanism for the progressive nature of AD, it was shown that, although apoptosis may be involved in AD, it is actually necrosis that is responsible for the propagation of neuronal cell death so characteristic of AD. With the Vicious Cycle of AD, a scheme was devised, integrating the results obtained here with data and research from other groups, which explains the chronic and progressive nature of AD as a result of Aβ’s physiological role as an AMP and innate immune system effector. Borne from Aβ’s activity as an AMP and its central role in the Vicious Cycle of AD, a question was investigated: do antibiotics, such as penicillin, that cause release of bacterial endotoxins due to their mechanism of action, trigger the Vicious Cycle of AD and thus lead to the development of AD? Preliminary evidence supporting this notion was presented.

No description available.