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An expanse of research literature has confirmed that a significant percentage of women are concerned about their body size and appearance. Western cultures have emphasized that women must look good to be worthy. Media attention that alludes to the benefits of a thin, fit body exacerbates women's beliefs that they need to look a certain way to be acceptable and to fit in. How though, can the majority of women fit into a world of contrary ideals? Being strong and healthy does not absolutely mean a woman has to be model thin with conspicuous abdominal muscles and extreme body definition. In the field of art therapy, there has been no specific research to demonstrate the advantages of clay for the exploration of body-image, male or female. The research undertaken focuses on and evaluates the manner and methods in which clay can be employed as an enabling material for body-image issues with women within art therapy practice. With the help of small groups of female participants who were invited to attend sessions in my pottery to make their body-images from clay and join in discussion, I was able to explore within a safe and contained environment the ways in which clay can be utilised within an art therapy setting. None of the women who took part in the research had a diagnosis relating to body-image issues. By pursuing the methods of Participatory Action Research (PAR) for Study One I employed the fundamental features of Cycles of Reflection. The results of Study One assisted me in choosing Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to further the research. In this way, I would be able to identify the most robust of themes within the dialogues of the three women who attended the individual sessions that comprised Study Two. The final results of the research point to a positive and contained means of working with clients and patients in order to provide a significant resource to help women explore and be more accepting of their bodies.

O Body Image Quality of Life Inventory (BIQLI) é um instrumento composto por 19 itens e avalia o impacto positivo ou negativo da imagem corporal sobre alguns aspectos da vida: emoções, convívio social, alimentação, sexualidade, bem-estar emocional, exercícios, relacionamentos entre amigos, família e trabalho/escola. Originalmente proposto no idioma inglês, esse instrumento apresenta uma escala bipolar de resposta com sete opções. Os objetivos deste estudo metodológico foram adaptar o BIQLI para o português-Brasil e avaliar confiabilidade e validade da versão adaptada do instrumento, em uma amostra de pacientes brasileiros, vítimas de queimaduras. O processo de adaptação seguiu as seguintes etapas: tradução do BIQLI para o português por dois tradutores, obtenção da versão consensual em português, avaliação pelo Comitê de Juízes para análise das equivalências semântica, idiomática, conceitual e cultural, back-translation por dois tradutores americanos, obtenção da versão consensual em inglês, comparação da versão consensual em inglês com a versão original do BIQLI, envio da versão consensual em inglês a um dos autores do instrumento original, análise semântica dos itens e pré-teste da versão adaptada do BIQLI em pacientes brasileiros que sofreram queimaduras. A validade de construto foi avaliada pelo teste de correlação de Pearson entre os resultados obtidos pela aplicação do BIQLI e os resultados da avaliação de construtos correlatos - autoestima (com aplicação da Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg) e qualidade de vida (com a aplicação da Burns Specific Health Scale- Revised). Para verificar o número de componentes do BIQLI e visando à comparação com outros estudos, foram realizados a análise dos componentes principais e o teste para comparação de grupos distintos. A confiabilidade foi avaliada pela consistência interna de seus itens (Alfa de Cronbach). O nível de significância adotado foi de 0,05. Participaram da etapa de validação 77 pacientes, com idades entre 18 e 62 anos, em atendimento no ambulatório da Unidade de Queimados do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto. A média dos valores obtidos para cada um dos 19 itens do BIQLI foi de 0,62 (Desviopadrão - D.P. = 1,1) e para o escore total do BIQLI foi de 11,8 (D.P. = 20,9). Com relação à validade de construto, obtiveram-se correlações moderadas entre as medidas de imagem corporal e autoestima (r= 0,30 e p= 0,008) e correlações moderadas entre as medidas de imagem corporal e as obtidas nos domínios afeto e imagem corporal (r= 0,45 e p= 0,000) e relações interpessoais ( r= 0,33 e p= 0,003) da BSHS-R. Com relação à confiabilidade, obtivemos um alto valor para a consistência interna da versão adaptada do BIQLI (Alfa = 0,90). A análise fatorial realizada com um único fator previamente determinado explicou 37,30% da variância de resposta, de forma que a menor carga encontrada foi 0,395. Concluímos que a versão adaptada do BIQLI atendeu aos critérios de validade e confiabilidade, mantendo as propriedades da versão original. / The Body Image Quality of Life Inventory (BIQLI) is an instrument composed of 19 items and assesses the negative or positive body-image impact over a few aspects of life: emotions, social life, diet, sexuality, emotional well-being, exercise, relationship with friends, family and work/school. Originally proposed in the English language, this instrument presents a bipolar response scale with seven options. The objective of this methodological study was to adapt the BIQLI to Brazilian Portuguese and assess the reliability and validity of the instrument\'s adapted version, in a sample of Brazilian patients victims of burns. The adaptation process followed the following steps: translation of the BIQLI into Portuguese by two translators, obtainment of the consensual Portuguese version, assessment by the Judging Committee to analyze the semantic, idiomatic, conceptual and cultural equivalence, back-translation by two American translators, obtainment of the consensual English version, comparison of the consensual English version with the original BIQLI version, forwarding of the consensual English version to one of the authors of the original instrument, semantic analysis of the adapted BIQLI version items and pre-testing on Brazilian patients that suffered burns. The validity of the construct was assessed through the Pearson correlation test between the results obtained through applying the BIQLI and the results of the correlate construct assessments - self-esteem (applying the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale) and quality of life (applying the Burns Specific Health Scale- Revised). To check the number of components in the BIQLI and aiming at the comparison to other studies, the main components were analyzed and the test to compare different groups was performed. The reliability was assessed through the internal consistency of its items (Cronbach Alpha). The significance level adopted was of 0.05. Seventy-seven patients, aged between 18 and 62 being treated at the outpatient clinic of the Ribeirão Preto Medical School Clinical Hospital Burn Unit participated in the validation phase. The mean of the values obtained for each one of the 19 items in the BIQLI was of 0.62 (Standard Deviation - S.D. = 1.,1) and for the total BIQLI score 11.8 (S.D. = 20.9). With regards to the construct validity, moderate correlations were obtained between the body-image and self-esteem measurements (r= 0.30 and p= 0.008) and moderate correlations between the body-image measurements and those obtained from the affection and body-image (r= 0.45 and p= 0.000) and interpersonal-relations ( r= 0.33 and p= 0.003) domains of the BSHSR. As to the reliability, we obtained a high value for the internal consistency of the adapted BIQLI version (Alpha = 0.90). The factorial analysis performed with a single predetermined factor explained 37.30% of the response variance, in such a way that the lowest load found was of 0.395. We concluded that the adapted BIQLI version met the validity and reliability criteria, maintaining the properties of the original version.

Conti MA. Imagem corporal e estado nutricional de estudantes de uma escola particular. São Paulo; 2002. [Dissertação de Mestrado – Faculdade de Saúde Pública da USP]. A imagem corporal, entendida como imagem do corpo formada pela mente, desenvolve-se desde o nascimento pela maturação do mundo psíquico. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi verificar a percepção da imagem corporal de adolescentes, utilizando avaliação do estado nutricional (IMC) e aplicação de uma escala adaptada de satisfação corporal. A amostra constituiu-se por 147 adolescentes, sendo 52 meninos e 95 meninas, com idade média 12 anos, que após mensuração antropométrica (peso e altura) responderam questionário sobre satisfação por áreas corporais. Dos meninos estudados, 1,92% apresentaram estado nutricional de “magreza”, 53,84% de “normalidade” e 44,23% de “sobrepeso/obesidade”, e para as meninas, 3,15%, 77,89% e 18,92% respectivamente. Os meninos identificaram insatisfação com peso corporal (34,6%) e estômago (25,0%) e as meninas, insatisfação com peso corporal (30,5%), tórax/seio (20,0%) e estômago (17,9%). Detectou-se associação significantemente estatística entre estado nutricional e grau de satisfação corporal, com meninos classificados com “sobrepeso e obesidade” inferindo maior insatisfação para as áreas do estômago, cintura e peso corporal e para meninas, todas as áreas, exceto rosto, cintura, tórax/seio, braço e altura. Associando-se fase de adolescência (maturação sexual) e grau de satisfação por áreas corporais, os meninos pré-púberes revelaram maior insatisfação para a área ombro/costas, e as meninas pós-púberes maior insatisfação para a área do rosto, cabelo, quadril, estômago, cintura, tórax/seio, tônus muscular, altura e aspectos gerais. Associando-se gênero e satisfação corporal, os meninos evidenciaram maior insatisfação para as áreas do estômago e nádegas e meninas para tórax/seio. Concluí-se, para a população estudada, que o estado nutricional, maturação sexual e sexo interferem na satisfação e imagem corporal. Os possíveis motivos geradores da insatisfação corporal na adolescência em nível de saúde pública, definem-se pela pressão da mídia, influências sociais e influências negativas parentais e de amigos. / Conti MA. Body image and nutritional status among students of a private school. São Paulo; 2002. [Dissertação de Mestrado – Faculdade de Saúde Pública da USP].The body image, understood as the body image formed by mind, has been developing since the birth. The present study aimed to verify the body image perception of adolescents, through nutritional status evaluation and an adapted body satisfaction scale application. The sample was 147 teenagers (52 boys and 95 girls) with 12 years old on average who had their weight and stature measured and answered a body satisfaction questionnaire. In relation to the nutritional status, it was registered for the boys, 1.92% of leanness, 53.84% of normality and 44.23% of overweight/obesity, and for the girls, 3.15%, 77.89% and 18.92% respectively. The boys had identified complete body dissatisfaction with weight (34.6%) and stomach area (25.0%) and girls with their weight (30.5%), thorax/breast (20.0%) and stomach area (17.9%). It was detected significant association between nutritional status and body satisfaction. The boys classified as ‘overweight/obesity’ had greater dissatisfaction with the stomach area, waist and weight comparing to the boys classified as ‘normal’. The girls had greater dissatisfaction with their hair, buttocks, hip, thighs, legs, stomach, shoulder/back, muscle strenght, weight and general aspects. It was registered significant differences between the phase of adolescence (sexual maturation) and degree of body satisfaction. The pre-pubescent boys had greater dissatisfaction with the shoulder/back area than the pubescent ones. For the pos-pubescent girls, greater dissatisfaction was related to the face area, hair, hip, stomach area, waist, thorax/breast, muscle strength, height and general aspects, comparing to the pubescent ones. When gender and body satisfaction was associated, the boys had shown greater dissatisfaction with the stomach area and buttocks and girls with the thorax/breast area. In conclusion the nutritional status, sexual maturation and gender were associated with body satisfaction and body image. In the public health area, the possible body dissatisfaction causes among teenagers are midia, social, familiar and peer’s influences.

The purpose of this study was to develop a theory grounded in the health experiences of rural adolescents. By exploring the embodied experiences within a unique population of rural Iowan adolescents, many who are overweight/obese and/or of Hispanic descent, the developed theory was also used to inform a tailored health intervention for middle school students. The review of the literature revealed that the study of adolescent physical activity and body image concerns is largely measurement driven, and often explored from a deficit perspective. Thus, there remains a gap in the literature regarding the contextualized experience of health. This project used a qualitative approach to generate a theory grounded in stories adolescents shared regarding their health. Eighteen adolescents (13-15 years old) participated in one-on-one interviews. Grounded theory principles were used to understand how personal health experiences were socially constructed and explored the meanings participants derived from such experiences. An unstructured interview guide was used to gather information on health, physical activity, nutrition, and body image. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using Charmaz's (2006) version of grounded theory. A total of 28 codes emerged from the data to construct the Theory of Embodied Health and Wellness. The complex interplay of personal health behaviors, eco-sociocultural influence, and everyday experience mold adolescents' embodied health and wellness experiences. Participants reported a wide range of personal, social, cultural and environmental influences on their health experiences. Feeling in control, connected, and competent were major themes in how participants experienced, maintained, or challenged their health experiences within their sociocultural environment. In addition to constructing the Theory of Embodied Health and Wellness, this project engaged adolescents in conversations related to their own health experiences to develop a sociocultural tailored health intervention. This project provides a practical example of how the target population of an intervention can be included during the formative research phase to ensure the intervention is tailored to meet their needs and interests.

Researchers and clinicians have postulated that the thin-ideal image portrayed in the media leads to body dissatisfaction and negative self-appraisals among women; however, there is little research that has directly examined the effects of these images on women. The purpose of this research investigation was to experimentally examine the effects of exposure to the thin-ideal on women's affect, self-esteem, body satisfaction, and level of internalization of the thin body image. This study also assessed how the thin-ideal image differentially impacted women with a diagnosed eating disorder. College women (N = 145) were randomly exposed to photographs from popular magazines containing either thin-ideal images or neutral images (nonmodels). The results indicated that exposure to the thin-ideal images produced body dissatisfaction, negative mood states, and lowered self-esteems. It was also expected that exposure to the thin body image would result in higher levels of internalization of the thin-ideal; however, the results indicated that women exposed to these images had significantly lower levels of internalization compared to women in the neutral condition. The results also suggest that women with eating disorders exhibited significantly more body dissatisfaction and depression after exposure to the thin-ideal relative to all other subgroups of women. Implications for prevention of eating disorders and areas of future research are discussed.

This study involves the development and validation of a measure of physical appearance-related comments, The Verbal Commentary on Physical Appearance Scale (VCOPAS). Previous research has shown that the development of body image and eating disturbances is greatly influenced by teasing and negative appearance-related feedback. The limited research on positive appearance-related feedback is likely due to the lack of an empirically validated scale of positive appearance-related commentary. Consequently, the VCOPAS was developed to assess the frequency and effect of positive appearance-related comments and other types of appearance-related comments. In Study 1, 50 undergraduate female students of ages 18 to 25 completed the revised VCOPAS and 8 of these students also attended a focus group session. The revised VCOPAS and its subscales demonstrated adequate internal consistency. This scale was subsequently modified based on the findings of Study 1. In Study 2, 320 undergraduate female students of ages 18 to 25 completed the VCOPAS. Factor analyses indicated that four factors should be retained. The VCOPAS and its subscales exhibited low to high internal consistencies. Study 3 was a confirmatory factor analysis study that used 246 undergraduate female students of ages 18 to 25. An exploratory factor analysis was also conducted to cross-validate the VCOPAS with a new sample. Given the importance of interpretability and theory in scale development, a four-factor model was retained for the final VCOPAS. The final VCOPAS consists of 26 items and contains four subscales (Negative Appearance, Positive Body, Positive General Appearance, and Exercise Commentary). The total scale and subscales demonstrated adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Significant correlations were found between a number of VCOPAS subscales and measures of physical appearance-related feedback, body image disturbance, self-objectification, and self-esteem. Regression analyses indicated the utility of the Negative Appearance, Positive Body, and Positive General Appearance subscales in predicting body image disturbance. It seems that different types of appearance-related commentary influence the body image of females in distinct ways. The VCOPAS is likely to be useful in future research examining the role of appearance-related commentary, specifically positive appearance-related commentary, in the development of body image and eating disturbances among females.

Exercise rooted in changing one’s appearance is associated with increased disordered eating and body image pathology. There are a limited number of scales assessing appearance-based exercise, and those that do are methodologically flawed. The aim of the current work was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of appearance-based exercise (Exercise Appearance Motivations Scale (EAMS)). Female undergraduate students (N = 650) completed an online survey designed to assess the EAMS’ psychometric properties. Factor analysis and hierarchical regressions were used for measure development and validation. Five factors of the EAMS were identified through factor analysis: muscularity, appearance, societal pressures, shape/weight, and avoidance/shame. Pearson product moment correlations were used to examine the associations between the EAMS and scales assessing convergent validity (appearance comparison, disordered eating, appearance evaluation, internalization of body ideals) and discriminant validity (belief in a just world). Results indicated that Cronbach’s alpha (α = .94) and test-retest reliability coefficients (r = .77) were adequate. The EAMS demonstrated adequate construct and incremental validity. These results provide preliminary evidence that the EAMS scale is a reliable and valid measure of appearance-based motives of exercise behavior when used with undergraduate women. Implications, limitations, and future research ideas are discussed.

This dissertation investigates how masculinities are understood and practiced through the body and how such practices are shaped and limited by modernist theories about gender. The research argues that postmodern theory allows for a greater inclusivity of genders and bodies otherwise marginalised by modernity. A qualitative postmodern and poststructural methodology, combined with a research method involving the collection of all data via an on-line questionnaire, disrupts modernist, dualistic thinking about the body and gender. By distancing the physical body from the research method, and thus separating, temporarily, discourses of gender which inhabit the body, this research creates counter-hegemonic spaces to re-articulate masculine identities and practices within the postmodern condition. Furthermore, the postmodern theory and methodology informing this work unsettles the belief that physical bodies can be counted on to reveal consistent truths. The contextualisation of this work includes a chapter that recounts various historical moments where technological advancements made way for the re-consideration and re-negotiation of gender and bodies. The intersections of technology and modernity are examined along with the rise of the postmodern condition and the advancement of computer technologies. Shifts in understanding, influenced by postmodern theory and human-computer interaction, are discussed in relation to their challenges to modernist boundaries of ?the real? and, in turn, the possibilities of gender articulations. Additionally, a chapter containing critical researcher reflexivity through an autobiographical account of masculinities and schooling acts to illustrate some of the complexities, contradictions, privileges and counter-hegemonic possibilities of masculinities and bodies. Although the majority of the research participants identified as ?male?, some identified as ?female? and others identified as ?intersex?. The geographic identities of the respondents included Australia, The United Kingdom, Ireland, The United States, and Japan. The data were analysed using postmodern and poststructural theory. The subjectivity and the role of the researcher in the analysis of data were interrogated alongside the words of the participants. The responses were grouped into four areas: Being and Knowing; The Body Engendered; Bodies On-Line and On the Line, and New Articulations. In all four areas the participants? words demonstrate tensions between modern and postmodern understandings of bodies and genders. Computer technologies often replicate modernist images of gender and bodies, yet at the same time they provide a postmodern space of multiplicity, fluidity, and hybridity, where rigid modernist configurations cannot hold. The analysis illuminates, diffracts, disrupts, and highlights disjunctures and new possibilities for gender and bodies mediated by contemporary computer and Internet technologies. Lastly, Benjaminian dialectical images were used to transform fixed modernist beliefs about gender and bodies and to move the reader toward alternative ways of understanding gender which are not body dependent. / thesis (PhDEducation)--University of South Australia, 2002.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / University students are known to have a high prevalence of body dissatisfaction, dieting and disordered eating and exercise behaviours. Those enrolled in food and exercise related degree areas have been found to be particularly vulnerable. Part 1 of this study compared the body image, body dissatisfaction, dieting, disordered eating and exercise behaviours of first year male and female trainee physical education [PE; N = 295] teachers and undergraduates enrolled in non food and exercise related degree areas [Non PE; N = 207]. Male and female PE participants had a lower body image and higher body dissatisfaction and were significantly more likely to be dieting and engaging in disordered eating behaviours than Non PE participants. These findings provide empirical evidence of anecdotal suspicions that trainee physical education teachers are susceptible to body image problems and eating disorders; and create a demand for for intervention programs to improve the body image, body dissatisfaction, dieting and disordered eating and exercise behaviours of this population. Part 2 of this study involved the development of a dissonance and self esteem based (Intervention 1) and a dissonance, and media literacy based intervention that built self esteem and used computer technologies (Intervention 2) to be implemented into trainee physical education teachers’ [N= 170] undergraduate training. Both interventions were successful in improving the body image, and disordered eating behaviours of trainee PE teachers compared to a control group; which suggests that the inclusion of intervention programs in trainee teacher’s undergraduate training is both feasible and effective. Further research should investigate the effects of intervention programs to improve body image and eating behaviours among trainee physical education teachers; and male university students. The development of standardised measures and approaches toward the improvement of body image, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating and exercise behaviours that are specifically designed for males is also encouraged.