Thermal power plants dominate electric power generation in Taiwan, which causes high Green House gases (GHG) emissions. CO2 is the most important greenhouse gas that cause global warming and sea-level to rise. This paper faces the relationship between CO2 limitation and power generation expansion planning (GEP) for the utility. Modify Particle Swarm Optimization (MPSO) is presented to determine the generation expansion planning strategy of the utility with independent power providers (IPPs). The utility has to take both the IPPs¡¦ participation and environmental impact into account when a new generation unit is expanded. This problem also takes into account the CO2 reduction and reliability issues, while satisfying all electrical constraints simultaneously from the supply point of view. MPSO scheme was improved to avoid getting a premature answer. Testing results shows that MPSO can offer an efficient way in determining the generation expansion planning. Generation expansion planning is an important decision-making activity in a competitive market, all utilities including IPPs need to maximize the profit while meeting the load demand with a pre-specified reliability criterion. In order to achieve the objective, utilities will perform the generation expansion planning to determine the minimal-cost capacity power addition. For better economy and efficiency, they will consider options of either constructing new generating units or purchasing electricity from other utilities or IPPs.

Quantifying carbon emissions of water bodies at regional scale is required as recent studies revealed their contribution in carbon cycling is significant. This demands to scale up water bodies carbon emissions from local to regional scale using as accurate approach as possible. In this study data of carbon (CO2-C) fluxes for 80 sampled lakes were used to scale up to more than 3000 lakes and ponds over the catchment. The most appropriate method for upscaling was the one in which two factors of water body size and location (altitude) were involved and the uncertainties were quantified in an advanced approach (Monte Carlo model). Based on the estimates obtained in this method, the annual carbon emission from all water bodies (~ 500 km2) was about 2900 ton C yr-1 . About 62% of this annual emission was related to the large lake Torneträsk (334 km2) and another 38% to all other lakes and ponds (166 km2). Water bodies in subalpine region dominated (90%) total water bodies area and were the major contributor (97%) to the total carbon emissions of all water bodies. The remaining small contribution (3%) was for water bodies in the alpine region, which contains only 10% of total water bodies area. These data indicate that all water bodies smaller than the large lake Torneträsk especially the ones in the subalpine region have considerable contribution to the annual carbon emission of all water bodies. Considering water body size and altitude factors in the advanced upscaling method was appropriate to obtain accurate estimates.

CO2 is one of the main gases accountable for the increment of the greenhouse effect, of climate changes, and of environmental degradation arising from this ecological unbalance. Civil construction is one of the main sources of CO2 emissions, using construction techniques that are more sustainable can contribute to the reduction of those emissions. Furthermore, the energy content of materials must be taken into account as well due to the fact that the consumption of petroleum by-products increases the CO2 indexes in the atmosphere. It becomes then clear that the less energy is consumed, even those renewable, the less environmental impact there is. Thus, it is indispensable to analyse not only the emissions of CO2 but also the energy content of materials used in three roofing technologies under scrutiny in this research: green roofs, fibre cement, and ceramic tiles. Green roofs are a sustainable alternative to be implemented in covering the top of buildings. This research, therefore, aims to compare the CO2 emission to the energy content of two green roof solutions and of two traditional coverage solutions in the pre-operational phase in the cities of Porto Alegre and Santa Maria, both in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. The method used to identify left from the layers and constituents in each green cover, and the raw materials used in traditional roofs, measuring how much material was used for each cover, analyzing all the material traversed by the means of transport, quantifying emissions CO2 and energy consumption of materials by processes fabrication them and finally to compare all results. Common belief is that green roofs have the potential to mitigate environmental damages, especially those caused by the civil construction sector concerning CO2 emissions and energy consumption in the pre-operational phase, just as advantages in the operational phase are described. Such hypothesis was confirmed for the tested cover. However, among the possibilities discussed below for closing the top of buildings, green roofs are the only technology capable of mitigating environmental damage, in particular, the emission of carbon dioxide, and provide an environmental service to the community carbon sequestration to throughout his life . Nonetheless, amongst the building coverage possibilities herein analysed, green roofs are the only technology capable of integrally mitigating environmental damages in a few years, especially the emission of carbon dioxide, and also the only technology capable of providing an environmental service to the collectivity of carbon sequestration to throughout his life. / O CO2 é um dos principais gases responsáveis pelo incremento do efeito estufa, das mudanças climáticas e da degradação ambiental decorrente deste desequilíbrio ecológico. Sendo a construção civil uma das principais responsáveis pela emissão de CO2, o uso de técnicas construtivas mais sustentáveis pode contribuir para a redução dessas emissões. Além disso, o conteúdo energético dos materiais também é importante ser considerado, pois além de incrementar, através de consumo de derivados de petróleo, os índices de CO2 na atmosfera, o menor consumo de energia possível, mesmo as renováveis, representa menores impactos ambientais. Assim sendo, imprescindível analisar não só a emissão de CO2, como também o conteúdo energético dos materiais empregados nas três tecnologias de cobertura objetos de estudo desta pesquisa: coberturas verdes, de fibrocimento e de telhas cerâmicas. As coberturas verdes são uma possibilidade sustentável a ser implementada no fechamento de topo de edificações. A presente pesquisa visa a comparar as emissões de CO2 e o conteúdo energético de duas soluções de cobertura verdes e duas soluções de coberturas tradicionais, na fase pré-operacional, localizadas em Porto Alegre e outra em Santa Maria RS. O método utilizado partiu desde identificar as camadas e elementos constituintes em cada cobertura verde, bem como os insumos utilizados nas coberturas tradicionais, mensurar quanto material foi utilizado para cada cobertura, analisar o percorrido de todos os materiais pelos meios de transportes, quantificar as emissões de CO2 e o consumo energético dos materiais pelos processos de fabricações dos mesmos e finalmente comparar todos os resultados. O senso comum considera que as coberturas verdes têm o potencial de mitigar danos ambientais, especialmente os causados pelo setor da construção civil de emissão de CO2 e de consumo energético na fase pré-operacional, da mesma forma como são descritas as vantagens na fase operacional. Tal hipótese se confirmou para as coberturas avaliadas. Dentre as possibilidades aqui analisadas para fechamento de topo de edificações, as coberturas verdes são a única tecnologia capaz de mitigar os danos ambientais, em especial, a emissão de dióxido de carbono, e fornecer um serviço ambiental à coletividade de sequestro de carbono ao longo de sua vida útil.

Die Energieerzeugung aus fossilen Brennstoffen trägt weltweit erheblich zum Treibhauseffekt bei. So entfielen 2005 24 % der gesamten CO2-Emissionen in der Europäischen Union auf die Stromerzeugung aus Kohle [1]. Recherchen im Rahmen eines Forschungsvorhabens an der Professur für Betriebliche Umweltökonomie der TU Dresden ergaben, dass öffentliche Gebietskörperschaften einen Anteil von ca. 7,8 % am Stromverbrauch in Deutschland haben. Bisher berücksichtigen jedoch nur wenige Kommunen die CO2-Emissionen als Entscheidungskriterium bei der Ausschreibung von Strom. Damit wird deutlich, welches Potenzial in der Ausschreibung von Strom liegen kann. Hierbei stellt sich allerdings nicht nur die Frage, welche Herausforderungen öffentliche Ausschreibungen mit sich bringen, sondern auch wie diese Möglichkeiten den Markt aus der Sicht des Nachfragers eingrenzen, d. h. ob überhaupt ein entsprechendes Angebot am Markt verfügbar ist. / Energy supplies on the basis of fossil fuels contribute significantly to the global greenhouse effect. In 2005, for example, 24 % of the total CO2 emissions in the EU were attributable to coal-fired power generation. The work of a research project at TU Dresden revealed that public administrative bodies account for approx. 7.8 % of electricity consumption in Germany. To date, however, only few communities have made CO2 emissions a decision criterion in their electricity procurement. It is thus clear, just how much potential lies in the procurement process for electricity. At the same time, however, consideration must be given not only to the challenges arising from the appraisal of public procurement, but also to how these options limit the market scope from the point of view of the community, i.e. whether corresponding offers are actually available on the market.

The generation of solid waste is a natural consequence of human life. Its rate has increase rapidly along the years, mostly due to the population growth, urbanization process coupled to industrialization and economic development. The uncontrolled disposal of solid waste in unsuitable sites, dump sites, has poses a threat to public health and the environment. In this regard Global efforts has been made to rethink municipal solid waste management toward sustainability. Middle- and low-income countries, such as Brazil, should seize the opportunity and centre efforts in the development and strengthen of an inclusive municipal solid waste management, supported by an innovative public policy where all government levels are integrated and focused on resource recovery and recycling through the organization and strengthening of waste pickers, in order to act directly in the income improvement of a marginalized portion of society as a result of the revenue generated by recovered and recycled materials sales, as well as reduce the CO2eq emissions consequent from the disposal of solid waste, among others, hence moving these countries towards the achievement of the SDG goals. In this regard, a well managed inclusive municipal solid waste system requires a reliable data source to support decision makers in the design of public policies with effective actions in the field, otherwise innovative and modern public policies will be filled with fruitless actions, thus, wasting the aptitude of the municipal solid waste management system in help middle- and low-income countries to successfully carry out the SDGs goals. Nevertheless, the estimation methods are a valuable tool for decision makers in middle- and low income countries to outrun the lack of solid waste information and doing so, increase the effectiveness of public polices towards a sustainable and inclusive municipal solid waste system, focused on mitigate negative impacts in the environmental sphere and potentiate the positive outcomes in the public health and human development sphere in these countries. This research proposed an estimate method based on the nominal income which is able to provide a reliable estimate of the residential solid waste generation, as well as its spatial distribution in the municipal level and within the municipal boundaries. The proposed approach has the ability to differentiate spatial distribution of the residential solid waste generation, weighting not just the number of people living in a determined space, but also the purchase power of those people, providing a more accurate view of the issue, which benefits decision makers to design and plan their polices and actions. / Graduate

Yes / Geopolymer concrete is a promising candidate to replace conventional concrete as geopolymer concrete depends on alkali-activated binders instead of Portland cement. The elimination of cement from the mixture results in the reduction of the greenhouse gas release. From the literature, it is known that the micro-scale characteristics of the geopolymer concrete are similar to its counterparts. However, the structural performance of geopolymer elements should be investigated in detail. Therefore, in this study, the structural performance of reinforced geopolymer concrete beams is compared by conducting bending tests to determine the shear behavior of new generation geopolymer concrete produced from entirely construction and demolition wastes (CDW). In these tests, geopolymer concrete with recycled aggregates, geopolymer concrete with natural aggregates, conventional concrete with recycled aggregates, and conventional concrete with natural aggregates are used in order to study the possibility of reaching fully-recycled construction materials. Three different shear-span-to-depth ratios (a/d) are utilized to investigate the different modes of failure. Therefore, the structural performance of beams was, firstly, compared for mixtures without recycled aggregates to control the possible side effects of 100% recycled concrete construction. Load-deflection curves, moment-curvature curves, and crack patterns were utilized to conclude the performance of geopolymer concrete. Test results revealed that geopolymer concrete beams exhibited similar performance to the conventional concrete beams of the same grade. However, the inclusion of recycled aggregates caused a shift in the failure mechanism from shear-dominated to flexure-dominated, especially in specimens with larger a/d ratios. Finally, the capacity prediction performance of current codes, i.e., TS500 and ACI318, are also examined, and the calculations resulted that the current code equations have a percentage error of approximately 55% on average, although TS500 equations performed slightly better. / The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance of the Scientific and Technical Research Council (TUBITAK) of Turkey and the British Council provided under projects: 218M102 and European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No: 869336, ICEBERG (Innovative Circular Economy Based solutions demonstrating the Efficient recovery of valuable material Resources from the Generation of representative End-of-Life building material).

Untersuchungsgegenstand der vorliegenden Dissertation sind biomassebasierte Kohlen (Biokohlen, biochar), welche für eine langfristige Kohlenstoffspeicherung in Böden mit dem gleichzeitigen Ziel der zusätzlichen Bodenverbesserung hergestellt werden. Die Auswahl der Kohlen umfasste Kohlen aus Pyrolyse- und hydrothermale Carbonisierung (HTC). In dieser Arbeit werden einige zentrale Phänomene, die bei deren Ausbringung in einem bestehenden Bodenökosystem auftreten können, nähergehend untersucht. Einerseits beeinflusst das fremde Material den Stoffwechsel und die Abundanz und Vielfalt innerhalb der mirkobiellen Gemeinschaft im Boden; im Gegenzug spielen die Mikroorganismen eine aktive Rolle beim Abbau des neuen Substrats. Diese beiden Aspekte sind größer Bedeutung, um bewerten zu können, wie erfolgsversprechend der Einsatz einer bestimmten Kohle im Boden hinsichtlich der Langlebigkeit, der gewünschten Ertragseffekte sowie möglicher Nebenwirkungen ist. Daraus ergeben sich die beiden folgenden zwei Fragestellungen, auf die diese Arbeit fokusiert ist: • Welche Faktoren beeinflussen die Abbaubarkeit der Kohlen im Boden? • Welche Wirkungen haben die Kohlen auf die Bodenatmung, auf den Boden-C-Gehalt, auf die mikrobielle Abundanz und auf die Dynamik der mikrobiellen Gemeinschaft? Als mögliche Einflussgrößen für die Abbaubarkeit der Kohlen wurden die Art der Kohlenherstellung, eine mögliche Nachbehandlung, der Alterungsprozess sowie die Zugabe einer Nährstoff- und einer labilen Kohlenstoffquelle getestet. Für diese Studie wurden Pyrolyse- und HTC-Kohlen aus Mais-Silage in einen Sandboden ausgebracht. Grundlage aller Versuche war die Untersuchung der Respirationsdynamik in unterschiedlichen Boden-Kohle-Gemischen, die durch Infrarotspektrometrie ermittelt wurde. Sie diente als Indikator für die mikrobielle Aktivität und dem daraus resultierenden Abbau der Substrate. Ergänzend wurde am Anfang und am Ende jedes Versuchs der Boden-Kohlenstoffgehalt gemessen. Die Versuche erfolgten auf verschiedenen Skalen: • Kurzzeit-Laborinkubationen (10 Tage) unter konstanten klimatischen Bedingungen in einem automatisch gesteuerten Durchflusssystem, an das das Messgerät direkt angeschlossen wurde. • Parzellenversuch (2 Jahre) im Freiland im Nordwesten Brandenburgs, bei dem die Bestimmung der Bodenatmung mittels wiederholter Beprobung aus auf der Ackerfläche gestellten geschlossenen Hauben erfolgte. In einer Laborinkubation wurde zusätzlich eine qPCR (quantitative Echtzeit Polymerase Kettenreaktion) zur Bestimmung der Abundanz ausgewählter mikrobieller Gruppen eingesetzt. Im Feldversuch wurde außerdem die Abundanz der stabilen Kohlenstoff-Isotopen (12C und 13C) im Boden und im freigesetzten CO2 ermittelt, um den Abbau der Kohlen vom Abbau des bodenorganischen Kohlenstoffs, der durch die Kohlen beeinflusst sein kann (priming), zu unterscheiden. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die erhöhte Stabilität beider Kohlen im Vergleich zum Ausgangsmaterial, vor allem für die Pyrolyse-Kohle, deren Abbau sowohl im Labor als auch im Freiland am langsamsten erfolgte. Bei beiden Kohlen sank die Abbaubarkeit mit ihrer Alterung. Anhand der Abbauraten im zweiten Jahr des Feldversuchs wurden für die Pyrolyse- und HTC-Kohle Halbwertszeiten von 81 bzw. 60 Jahren ermittelt. Im Gegensatz zur Pyrolyse-Kohle wies der Abbau der HTC-Kohle eine komplexere Dynamik auf, was im Lauf der 10-tägigen Inkubationsversuche mit einer Verschiebung der mikrobiellen Gemeinschaft einherging. Im ersten Jahr des Freilandversuchs kam es bei der HTC-Kohle zur Ausgasung flüchtiger und leicht abbaubarer Kohlenstoffverbindungen, wodurch die Stabilität im Folgejahr deutlich erhöht wurde. Eine Nachbehandlung der Kohlen durch anaerobe Fermentierung führte zu einer deutlichen Verminderung der kurzzeitigen Ausgasung bei HTC-Kohle, sowohl im Freiland als auch im Labor, jedoch zu einer langfristigen Reduktion der Stabilität beider Kohlen: die ermittelten Halbwertszeiten für die fermentierte Pyrolyse- und HTC-Kohle nach dem zweiten Jahr des Feldversuchs betrugen 14 bzw. 13 Jahren. Die Wirkung der unbehandelten Kohlen auf die Abundanz der untersuchten mikrobiellen Gruppen im C-armen Boden war stark reduziert im Vergleich zum Ausgangsmaterial, und unter C-reichen Bedingungen kam es zu einer Hemmung der Aktivitätssteigerung. Die Zugabe leicht verfügbaren Kohlenstoffs wie Glukose zum reinen Boden in einem Inkubationsversuch steigerte die Bodenatmung erheblich und erhöhte die Variationsbreite der mikrobiellen Gemeinschaft. In Gegenwart der Kohlen war dies allerdings weniger stark ausgeprägt. Bei Zugabe mineralischen Stickstoffs in Gegenwart von Kohlen wurde hingegen keine signifikante Veränderung der Bodenatmung nachgewiesen. Die Inkubationsversuche haben es ermöglicht, die Kurzzeitdynamik der Bodenatmung und die Anpassung der mikrobiellen Gemeinschaft nach Zugabe der Kohlen und zusätzlicher C- und N-Quellen nachzuweisen. Im Freilandversuch konnte die Abbaudynamik von Kohlenstoffverbindungen unter Praxisbedingungen untersucht werden und durch die Messung der stabilen Isotope differenzierte Aussagen über die langfristige Stabilität von zugesetzten Kohlen und der bodenorganischen Substanz getroffen werden. Eine langfristige Festlegung von Kohlenstoff ist im Boden in Form von Biokohlen ist möglich. Allerdings hängt die Dauer der Festlegung von einer Vielzahl von Faktoren wie der Art der Ausgangsstoffe, den Prozessbedingungen, den Interaktionen zwischen Kohlepartikeln und Bodenorganismen und nicht zuletzt der Versuchsdauer ab. Während Kurzzeitversuche eine gute Möglichkeit darstellen, um die Effekte veränderter Bedingungen im Boden aufzuzeigen, kann die Kohlestabilität im Boden und damit das C-Sequestrierungspotenzial am zuverlässigsten nur in Langzeitstudien im Freiland abgeschätzt werden. / Oggetto della presente tesi sono i carboni prodotti da biomasse (biochar) e utilizzati per lo stoccaggio del carbonio nel suolo e allo stesso tempo come ammendanti per terreni agricoli. I carboni considerati sono derivati da pirolisi o carbonizzazione idrotermale (HTC). Nel presente lavoro vengono esaminati in dettaglio alcuni importanti fenomeni che si possono manifestare in seguito all’applicazione su un ecosistema preesistente nel terreno: da un lato il materiale estraneo influenza il metabolismo della materia organica, l’abbondanza e la varietà all’interno della comunità microbica nel suolo, dall’altro i microorganismi giocano un ruolo fondamentale nella degradazione del nuovo substrato. Questi due aspetti sono essenziali per valutare quanto sia opportuno l’utilizzo di un determinato carbone dal punto di vista della sua longevità, degli effetti attesi sulla resa agricola e di eventuali effetti collaterali sull’ecosistema. Da queste premesse sono emerse le seguenti domande, su cui è focalizzato il presente lavoro: • Quali fattori determinano la degradabilità dei carboni nel suolo? • Che effetti possono avere i carboni sulla respirazione del terreno, sul suo contenuto di carbonio, sull’abbondanza dei microorganismi e sulla dinamica della comunità microbica? Come possibili variabili indipendenti per la degradabilità dei carboni sono state considerate: il processo di produzione, un possibile posttrattamento, l’invecchiamento dei substrati, l’aggiunta di nutrienti e di carbonio biodisponibile. Per questo studio sono stati applicati carboni derivati da pirolisi e da HTC di insilato di mais in un terreno sabbioso. Il fondamento di tutti gli esperimenti riportati è lo studio della dinamica della respirazione microbica in diverse miscele terreno/carbone, misurata tramite spettroscopia a infrarossi, che vale come tracciante per l’attività microbica e per la degradazione del substrato. In aggiunta è stato periodicamente misurato il contenuto di carbonio nel terreno. Gli esperimenti sono stati condotti su due diverse scale: • Incubazioni in laboratorio (10 giorni) in condizioni climatiche controllate, all’interno di un apparato per la ventilazione a flusso continuo, con presa diretta per lo strumento di misura. • Esperimento in campo parcellizzato (2 anni) nel Brandeburgo nordoccidentale, dove la misura della respirazione è avvenuta per campionamento ripetuto da camere opache poggianti ermeticamente sul suolo. Per una delle incubazioni è stata anche eseguita una qPCR (reazione a catena della polimerasi quantitativa in tempo reale) per quantificare l’abbondanza di determinati gruppi tassonomici di microorganismi. Nel campo è stata inoltre misurata l’abbondanza degli isotopi stabili del carbonio (12C e 13C), sia nel terreno sia nella CO2 liberata, per differenziare la degradazione dei carboni da quella del carbonio organico nel suolo, che in principio può essere influenzata dalla presenza dei carboni (priming). I risultati confermano l’aumentata stabilità di entrambi i carboni in confronto al materiale di partenza, in particolare del carbone pirolitico che si è degradato piú lentamente, sia in laboratorio sia in campo. La degradabilità di entrambi i carboni si è in ogni caso ridotta con l’invecchiamento. Basandosi sulle emissioni del secondo anno della sperimentazione in campo, sono stati calcolati dei tempi di dimezzamento di 81 anni e 60 anni, rispettivamente per il carbone pirolitico e per il carbone da HTC. La degradazione del carbone da HTC ha rivelato una dinamica piú complessa, che testimonia un adattamento della comunità microbica nell’arco dei 10 giorni di incubazione. Nel primo anno in campo è stata rilevata un’elevata emissione di composti volatili e labili, che ha portato a un incremento della stabilità nell’anno seguente. Il posttrattamento dei carboni tramite fermentazione anaerobica ha comportato una notevole riduzione dell’iniziale mineralizzazione del carbone da HTC, ma una diminuzione della stabilità di entrambi i carboni sul lungo periodo: i tempi di dimezzamento calcolati per il carbone pirolitico fermentato e per il carbone da HTC fermentato nel secondo anno dell’esperimento sul campo valgono rispettivamente 14 anni e 13 anni. Nel terreno usato, povero di carbonio, gli effetti dei carboni sull’abbondanza dei gruppi microbici selezionati è stata nettamente ridotta rispetto al materiale non carbonizzato, mentre la reazione all’aggiunta di carbonio labile è stata tendenzialmente inibitoria. Infatti, se l’aggiunta di glucosio ha incrementato considerevolmente la respirazione e l’ampiezza delle variazioni nella comunità microbica, in presenza dei carboni le variazioni sono state fortemente ridotte. L’aggiunta di azoto inorganico non ha invece portato a variazioni apprezzabili nella respirazione. Gli esperimenti basati su incubazioni hanno consentito di determinare la dinamica a breve termine della respirazione e l’adattamento della comunità microbica in seguito ad aggiunta dei carboni e di altre sorgenti di carbonio e azoto. Nell’esperimento su campo si è potuta osservare la dinamica di degradazione dei composti carboniosi in condizioni di prassi agricola e grazie alla misura degli isotopi stabili si sono potuti ottenere risultati differenziati sulla stabilità a lungo termine dei carboni e della sostanza organica del suolo. È quindi possibile immagazzinare il carbonio in modo duraturo nel suolo sotto forma di carbone. La durata stimabile di questo immagazzinamento dipende però da molteplici fattori tra cui la materia prima, il processo di carbonizzazione, le interazioni tra particelle carboniose e microorganismi del suolo e non da ultimo la durata della sperimentazione. Gli esperimenti a breve termine sono un mezzo efficace per rilevare le conseguenze immediate di modifiche del terreno; la stabilità dei carboni e quindi il loro potenziale per il sequestro del carbonio può essere determinata nel modo piú affidabile solo in studi a lungo termine sul campo. / The object of the present thesis is charred biomass (biochar) produced for double aim of carbon storage in soil and improvement of soil properties. The chosen chars included chars from pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC). The present work investigates closely some basic phenomena which can occur upon application of chars into an existing soil ecosystem: on the one hand, the allochthonous material affects the metabolism and the relative abundance of different microbial groups; on the other hand the microorganisms play an active role in the degradation of the new substrate. These two aspects are crucial to evaluate the suitability of the application of a specific char in the soil, particularly as concerns its stability, the length of time the char remains in the soil, the expected effects on crop yields, as well as possible side effects on the soil ecosystem. Based on this, two research questions arise which have been investigated in this thesis: • What factors affect the degradability of chars in soil? • How do the chars influence soil respiration, soil carbon content, microbial abundance and the dynamics of the microbial community? The production process, a post-treatment, the ageing process as well as the addition of a source of nutrients and a source of labile carbon were assessed as possible factors in determining the degradability of chars. For the present study, pyrolysis char and HTC char from maize silage were applied to a sandy soil. The basis of all experiments was an investigation of the respiration dynamics in different soil/char mixtures, measured through an infrared spectrometer, which was used to track the microbial activity and the substrate degradation. As a complement, soil carbon was also measured at the beginning and at the end of each experiment. The investigations were performed at different scales: • Short-term laboratory incubations (10 days) under constant climatic conditions in an automatic multi-channel flowthrough system, with direct plug-in for the measurement instrument. • A plot-wise investigation (2 years) in an agricultural field in North-West Brandenburg, where the soil respiration was measured by a repeated sampling from static chambers placed hermetically on the field. For one incubation study, qPCR (qunatitative real time polymerase chain reaction) was additionally applied to determine the abundance of selected microbial groups. Moreover, for the field investigation the abundance of stable carbon isotopes (12C und 13C) in the soil and in the released CO2 was recorded, to differentiate between the degradation of the chars and the degradation of soil organic carbon, which might be affected by the presence of chars (priming). The results confirm the higher stability of both chars in comparison to the feedstock, in particular for pyrolysis char, whose decay was the slowest both in the laboratory and in the field. The degradability of both chars decreased with their ageing. Based on the decay rates in the second year of the field investigation, decay half-lives for pyrolysis char and HTC char amounted respectively to 81 years and 60 years. Other than pyrolysis char, the degradation of HTC char revealed a more complex dynamics, which was accompanied by a shift of the microbial community within the 10 days incubation. During the first year of the field experiment, an intensive release of volatile and labile compounds took place, which led to an increased stability during the following year. A post-treatment of the chars via anaerobic fermentation led to a reduction in the initial degasing of the HTC char, both in the laboratory and in the field, but also to a decrease in stability for both chars: the calculated half-lives for fermented pyrolysis char and fermented HTC char on the basis of the second year of the field investigation were respectively 14 years and 13 years. The effects of the untreated chars on the abundance of the selected microbial groups in the carbon-poor soil used was also strongly reduced in comparison to the feedstock, while in a situation of carbon abundance a inhibition of the activity increase took place. Addition of readily available carbon in the form of glucose increased soil respiration tremendously and magnified the variation amplitude of the microbial community, which was however much reduced in the presence of chars. Instead, after addition of mineral nitrogen in presence of chars, no significant variation in the soil respiration could be observed. The incubation experiments made it possible to report the short-term dynamics of the soil respiration and the adaptation of the microbial community after application of char and additional carbon and nitrogen sources. In the field experiment the decay dynamics of char compounds could be investigated in a situation of common agricultural practice and the measurement of stable isotopes has given differentiated outcomes about the long-term stability of the added chars and of the soil organic matter. Storage of carbon in the soil in the form of char for a long period is possible. How long carbon can actually be stored depends on a number of factors such as the feedstock, the carbonisation process parameters, the interactions between char particles and soil microorganisms and the duration of the investigation itself. Short-term experiments represent a good possibility to highlight the effects of modified soil conditions, while the stability of char in soil and thus the potential carbon sequestration can be estimate in the most reliable way only through long-term studies in field.

Human behaviour produces massive greenhouse gas emissions, which trigger climate change and more unpredictable weather conditions. The fluctuation of daily weather corresponds to variations of everyday travel behaviour. This influence, although is less noticeable, can have a strong impact on the transport system. Specifically, the climate in Sweden is becoming warmer in the recent 10 years. However, it is largely unknown to what extent the change of travel behaviour would respond to the changing weather. Understanding these issues would help analysts and policy makers incorporate local weather and climate within our policy design and infrastructure management. The thesis contains eight papers exploring the weather and climate impacts on individual travel behaviour, each addressing a subset of this topic. Paper I explores the weather impact on individual’s mode choice decisions. In paper II and III, individual’s daily activity time, number of trips/trip chains, travel time and mode shares are jointly modelled. The results highlight the importance of modelling activity-travel variables for different trip purposes respectively. Paper IV develops a namely nested multivariate Tobit model to model activity time allocation trade-offs. In paper V, the roles of weather on trip chaining complexity is explored. A thermal index is introduced to better approximate the effects of the thermal environment. In paper VI, the role of subjective weather perception is investigated. Results confirm that individuals with different socio-demographics would have different subjective weather perception even given similar weather conditions. Paper VII derives the marginal effects of weather variables on transport CO2 emissions. The findings show more CO2 emissions due to the warmer climate in the future. Paper VIII summaries the existing findings in relations between weather variability and travel behaviour, and critically assesses the methodological issues in previous studies. / <p>QC 20160516</p> / Understanding the complexity of changes of travelers’ activity-travel choices and related transport CO2 emissions due to the variation of weather and climate in Sweden (Centre för Transport Studie, projekt kod: 446) / Understanding the impacts of weather and climate change on travel behavior (Centre för Transport Studie, projekt kod: 291)

Os danos ambientais causados pela construção civil são fonte de preocupação nesta área da engenharia, e reduzi-lo é interesse comum a todos. Pensar em sustentabilidade já na fase de projeto é um modo viável de se reduzir este impacto. A escolha pelo concreto pré-moldado oferece alguns benefícios iniciais quando se compara este ao concreto moldado no local e, dentre estes, estão a racionalização do canteiro de obras, a redução do desperdício e uma melhoria na produtividade. Uma qualidade adicional, que ainda não está tão clara, é a redução do impacto ambiental que se pode ter com o emprego do concreto pré-moldado. A proposta deste trabalho envolve a análise de fatores que influenciam a sustentabilidade ambiental de estruturas de concreto pré-moldado e a aplicação de um algoritmo de otimização para determinação dos valores ótimos que conduzem ao mínimo impacto ambiental. Para isso, optou-se por minimizar as emissões de CO2, associadas à forma estrutural adotada, à produção, ao transporte e à montagem dos elementos pré-moldados. Estudos de otimização no projeto de estruturas têm usualmente sido utilizados a fim de reduzir custos e, entre as técnicas de otimização utilizadas em engenharia estrutural, os algoritmos genéticos têm sido reconhecidos como uma forte tendência por serem fáceis de implementar e fornecerem excelentes resultados. Com o código de otimização de emissão de CO2 foram processados diversos exemplos, variando os dados de entrada um a um e, avaliando a influência da variação destes na emissão de CO2. Considerando um edifício de 30 m x 30 m, uma adição de pavimento representa um acréscimo aproximado de 35% de emissão de CO2. Para o mesmo prédio, um aumento de 10 m em uma das direções significa aumentar em 30% a emissão de CO2. Variaram-se também as larguras e alturas máximas das vigas, tamanho de vão mínimo entra pilares, distância da fábrica à obra, cargas atuantes, número de indivíduos da população, número de indivíduos para elitismo, numero máximo de gerações, taxa de cruzamento e taxa de mutação. Ao variar estes parâmetros as porcentagens de variação de emissão de CO2 chegam a valores próximos de 5%. Foi encontrado também um valor de emissão por m³ aproximado de 430 kg/m³. Além disso, a saída de dados do código de otimização de emissão de CO2 foi comparada com a do código de otimização de custo, e foi constatado que as configurações estruturais apresentadas para um mesmo edifício processado com os dois códigos são semelhantes entre si e semelhantes à solução estrutural utilizada para esta edificação. Também foi constatado que pode se relacionar emissão de CO2 com custo. Deste modo, foi proposto um fator que relaciona as duas grandezas, chamado Fator Emissão-Custo, ou Fec. Observou-se que o Fec varia com o acréscimo de pavimentos, mostrando que o custo e a emissão de CO2 são afetados de forma diversa pelo número de pavimentos. Para um edifício de 4 pavimentos o Fec médio encontrado foi de 1,53 kgCO2/R$. Os resultados encontrados permitiram atestar a validade do método dos algoritmos genéticos à engenharia de estruturas, bem como a importância que o concreto pré-moldado tem para a industrialização da construção civil. / The environmental impact caused by civil constructions is a source of concern in this area of engineering, and reducing it is a common interest to all. Thinking about sustainability already in the design phase is a feasible way to reduce this impact. The choice for precast concrete offers some initial benefits when compared to the cast- on-site concrete and, among these, are streamlining the construction site, reducing waste and improving productivity. An additional quality, which is not yet so clear, is to reduce the environmental impact that one can have when using precast concrete. The purpose of this work is to develop a method of optimization of the elements of precast concrete structures in relation to the sustainability of the product. To do so, it is proposed to minimize the CO2 emission associated to the structural solution, production, transportation and assembly of precast concrete. Studies on optimization design of structures have been commonly used to reduce costs and, among the optimization techniques in structural engineering, genetic algorithms have been recognized as a strong trend for being easy to implement and providing excellent results. With the CO2 emission code were processed several examples, varying the input data one by one, then was assessed the influence of each variation on CO2 emission. Considering one building with the size 30 m x 30 m, each floor added represents an approximated increase about 35% on CO2 emission. For the same building one increase of 10 m on each direction means add 30% on CO2 emission. Was varied on the code the maximum heights and widths of the beam, the minimum span between pillars, distance from the building to the factory, loads acting, maximum population individuals number, number of individuals to elitism, maximum generation number, outcrossing rate and mutation rate. Varying these parameters, the variations percentage of CO2 emission reaches values next to 5%. Was found too an approximated value to CO2 emission per m³ as about 430 Kg/m³. Furthermore, the CO2 emission optimization code data output was compared with the cost optimization code data output, and it was verified that the structural configuration presented on outputs was similar between them both and similar with the real structural solution used on this building. It was verified too that the CO2 emission and cost could be related. On this way was proposed a factor which relates the two quantities called Emission-Cost Factor, or Fec. It was noticed that Fec varies when floors are added, which means that the cost does not vary at the same way that the CO2 emission does when the number of floors are changed. For a building with 4 floors the medium value of Fec was found 1,53 kgCO2/R$. The results permitted attest the validity of using genetic algorithms in structural engineering, as well as highlighting the precast concrete contribution on the industrialization of civil construction.

Forest fuels can be recovered, stored and handled in several ways and these different ways have different implications for CO2 emissions. In this thesis, comparative analyses were made on different forest-fuel systems. The analyses focused on the recovery and transport systems. Costs, primary energy use, CO2 emissions, storage losses and work environment associated with the use of forest fuel for energy were examined by using systems analysis methodology in a life cycle perspective. The bundle system showed less dry-matter losses and lower costs than the chip system. The difference was mainly due to more efficient forwarding, hauling and large-scale chipping. The potential of allergic reactions by workers did not differ significantly between the systems. In difficult terrain types, the loose material and roadside bundling systems become as economical as the clearcut bundle system. The stump and small roundwood systems showed the greatest increase in costs when the availability of forest fuel decreased. Stumps required the greatest increase in primary energy use. Forest fuels are a limited resource. A key factor is the amount of biomass recovered per hectare. Combined recovery of logging residues, stumps and small roundwood from thinnings from the same forest area give a high potential of reduced net CO2 emissions per hectare of forest land. Compensation fertilization becomes more cost-effective and the primary energy use for ash spreading becomes low – about 0,25‰. The total amount of available forest fuel in Sweden is 66 TWh per year. This would cost 1 billion €2007 to recover and would avoid 6.9 Mtonne carbon if fossil coal were replaced. In southern Sweden almost all forest fuel is obtainable in high-concentration areas where it is easy to recover. When determining potential CO2 emissions avoidance, the transportation distance was found to be less important than the other factors considered in this work. The type of transportation system did not have a significant influence over the CO2 avoided per hectare of forest land. The most important factor analysed here was the type of fossil fuel (coal, oil or natural gas) replaced together with the net amount of biomass recovered per hectare of forest land. Large-scale, long-distance transportation of biofuels from central Sweden has the potential to be cost-effective and also attractive in terms of CO2 emissions. A bundle recovery system meant that more biomass per hectare could be delivered to end-users than a pellet system due to conversion losses when producing pellets.