The strong normative expectation that dictates we should help our elderly parents is a largely unrecognised evolutionary puzzle. Why do we invest so heavily in our parents when they are long past their reproductive years? Adult children looking after their own offspring often face a double burden of care, and choosing to help aging parents is often in conflict with the primary evolutionary task of parenthood - your own genetic posterity by ensuring your children become parents themselves. Despite the large altruism literature, no one has yet addressed this particular issue. This thesis investigates this theoretical paradox and adds to the sparse empirical work on kin and nonkin-directed altruism. As a test of the two most popular Inclusive Fitness evolutionary explanations of altruistic behaviours; Kin Selection (Hamilton, 1964) and Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers, 1971), this study takes a side-wise look at helping attitudes and behaviours across multiple types of relationships. A Choice Model experiment assessed 453 people from all Australian states stratified by age (145 16-24 year olds; 162 25-54 year olds, and 146 over 55 year olds). Participants responded to sixteen hypothetical situations where they could choose to help only one person from two persons requiring their help. The scenarios contained ten variables (relationship type; sex, type of help; history of reciprocation etc.) that were systematically varied. Data was analysed using Hierarchical Bayesian estimation methods, and after factoring out our general tendency toward a species wide cooperation, found broad support for Inclusive Fitness principles. Generally, there was a clear pattern of helping behaviour that saw friends as of at least equal importance to more distant relatives (cousins etc). Elderly parents are helped for no better reason than they are needy and this is an unequivocal demonstration of our species’ primary social imperative - cooperation - a clear inference that adult children are looking for the rewards that cooperation brings. This research also provides interesting insights into the nature of extended family dynamics as a sequelae of our rapid social evolution. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis examines the effectiveness of participatory research processes as a form of agricultural extension within the Australian Dairy Industry, and specifically addresses the question : Does Action Research provide an effective methodology and method(s) for enacting farmer-driven research? The experiences of the Dairy Australian-funded Profitable Pastures Protection Project (PPP), delivered to farmers across New South Wales from 1999 to 2003, provided the context within which Action Research was assessed. Data were derived from journal records of the researcher’s personal experiences as a participant observer, a PhD candidate and project coordinator. The other main data sources were industry reports that tracked the progress, outputs and outcomes of PPP. A three-tiered research framework, consisting of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary levels was devised as a basis to direct research, and interpret results. Conclusions are drawn that contemporary extension practice can be improved by better linking the on-and off-farm domains using participatory research processes such as Action Research. Meeting this challenge appears increasingly urgent in light of a globally relevant and strengthening off-farm environmental agenda that requires democratic engagement amongst greater numbers of agricultural stakeholders. This environmental agenda also places still greater demands on farmers, their management systems and the products and effects of the on-farm domain. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The participation of parents in the schooling of their children has become a central policy objective of the education sector in Australia as well as other parts of the developed world. The discourse of parent participation emphasises a need for parents to be involved in order to maximise the benefits of their child’s education. Parent participation includes such practices as parents and schools working as partners to improve the well-being and achievements of an individual child to formal participation of parents in decision-making forums. This thesis approaches the issue of parent participation through a study of parent advocacy bodies as they deal with policy issues and interface with parents as the school level and governments at the policy level. The policy area of gender equity is used as an illustrative example to analyse parent advocacy bodies’ structures and ways of operating. As a result of the empirical work that involved semi-structured interviews, observation techniques and extensive use of archival material, this thesis revisits the theory of positional goods as it reflects the notion and understanding parents have broadly that education is positional in that only few can achieve the highest levels of education and hence effort is exerted in ensuring their child achieves as highly as possible. This thesis argues that gender equity is caught in this thriving to capture a positional good that is elusive for most but appears enhanced by the use of adequate gender equity strategies. The action of parents within parent advocacy bodies reflected the fight over scarce resources that were perceived to be enhancing educational outcomes for girls at the expense of boys. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis has two distinct yet interrelated parts. In the first instance, it investigates child domestic work in Iringa ? a small town in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Second, it examines the participatory action research methodology that was adopted as part of that investigation. Data were collected by a team of researchers that included children and young people who had themselves been domestic workers. A questionnaire, interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with local leaders, employers of child domestic workers and (both current and former) child domestic workers themselves. An agenda for change - that aimed towards the redistribution of power within domestic working arrangements - was developed on the basis of those data and presented to local government authorities in Iringa. This research makes a number of contributions to understandings of both child domestic work and participatory action research methodologies. First, the thesis contends that child domestic work is a complex activity which (despite its frequently exploitative and abusive character) should not be identified as a purely harmful force in the lives of young employees. The multiplicity of ways in which that occupation is experienced can only be uncovered through the incorporation of a range of stakeholders? perspectives. Second, this research found that notions of ?family? were discursively linked to child domestic working arrangements in Iringa. This has inhibited recognition of child domestic work as ?real work?, and contributed to the exploitation of these young employees. This thesis contends that increased formalisation and regulation of child domestic work would offer an opportunity to reconstruct child domestic workers as ?employees? and thereby improve their circumstances. This research has also challenged prevalent notions of children?s incompetence and shown that young people with minimal formal education can (and should) participate as co-researchers in academic endeavours investigating their lives. However, it has also found that young people?s competencies and interests vary, and that notions of appropriate participatory processes have often failed to take such diversity into account. This thesis contends that more participatory forms of evaluation may allow greater flexibility (and relevance) to be fostered when assessing the ?success? of participatory processes. Academics need to be alert to the alienating effects that (unwittingly) ?judgemental? and (unrealistically) ?perfect? accounts of participatory and action-oriented research processes can have on young scholars.

For Maori, the management fo New Zealand�s coast and its resources is fundamental to their cultural identity. Iwi and hapu throughout New Zealand have close relationships with the coast and unique rights and responsibilities for its future management. However, there does not appear to be wide recognition of the crucial role of Maori in New Zealand�s coastal management regime. Co-management initiatives in coastal management, particularly under the Conservation Act 1987, Resource Management Act 1991 and several legislative initiatives controlling fisheries management, are explored and critiqued. Overall, the initiatives demonstrate that progress is being made in coastal management for better protection of Maori coastal values. Nevertheless, there is scope for further improvements concerning greater Maori involvement in coastal management. Recommendations for genuine co-management systems in New Zealand�s coastal management regime include effective communication between iwi and Government; appreciation of the unique nature of each iwi in New Zealand; involvement of a third party communicating between iwi and Government representatives; appropriate funding and resources to maintain the co-management system, and encouragement and motivation from the Government to initiate and maintain the co-management system.

This paper aims at exploring senior-aged labor force participation in both OECD countries and Taiwan, covering the aspects of the historical trends and transition, the dominant factors influencing participation status, the prevailing measures in practice and cross-country comparison. In the process of this study, secondary data including book, journals, article, news clips and statistical reports were collected and analyzed. The fast growing trends of ageing and low birth rate are supposed to bring about labor supply shortage and impact our economic growth for the years to come. Besides, employment and social policies and practices that discourage work at an older age effectively deny older workers’ choice in when and how they retire. This will result in a waste of valuable human resources and has become a top global issue. In conformity with the fast growing ageing population, more and more ageing labor force is projected to be infused into the labor market so as to support continuous economic development. However, ways to facilitate this group’s willingness of continuous work to sustain the aggregate labor supply are considered even a more tremendous issue. With the efforts made by the government as well as support from both employers and employees, task on the reform of pension system and other parts of social welfare system, abolishment of age discrimination, flexibility of employment protection rules and working hours, and enhancement of job training should be carried out promptly and efficiently. / This paper aims at exploring senior-aged labor force participation in both OECD countries and Taiwan, covering the aspects of the historical trends and transition, the dominant factors influencing participation status, the prevailing measures in practice and cross-country comparison. In the process of this study, secondary data including book, journals, article, news clips and statistical reports were collected and analyzed. The fast growing trends of ageing and low birth rate are supposed to bring about labor supply shortage and impact our economic growth for the years to come. Besides, employment and social policies and practices that discourage work at an older age effectively deny older workers’ choice in when and how they retire. This will result in a waste of valuable human resources and has become a top global issue. In conformity with the fast growing ageing population, more and more ageing labor force is projected to be infused into the labor market so as to support continuous economic development. However, ways to facilitate this group’s willingness of continuous work to sustain the aggregate labor supply are considered even a more tremendous issue. With the efforts made by the government as well as support from both employers and employees, task on the reform of pension system and other parts of social welfare system, abolishment of age discrimination, flexibility of employment protection rules and working hours, and enhancement of job training should be carried out promptly and efficiently.

Ecotourism emerged as an alternative form of tourism in the 1990s to mitigate the faults of conventional (mass) tourism in meeting the needs of sustainable development. It has since become widespread in Thailand and is adopted not only in natural areas but also in rural communities. Key elements of ecotourism include a focus on ecological resources, sustainable management, environmental education, and community participation. Community participation receives a high degree of consideration among developers in Thailand. Ecotourism (ET) is seen to support this concept and is increasingly geared in the direction of social development. These trends form the backdrop to this study on community participation in ecotourism development. The study applies a triangulation methodology to collect data by combining both qualitative and quantitative methods, combining theory and empirical study to analyse the context of how local people have participated in ecotourism development. The study pays particular attention to the practices and opinions of local people in recognition of communities' rights and responsibilities in controlling their own development. The empirical study was carried out at two levels, including a general survey by postal questionnaire (thirty-one respondents) and in-depth study in four areas (Umphang, Khiriwong, Sasom and Tha Madua). The research merges theory and practice into an analysis and empirical presentation throughout the study. Theoretically, the thesis is informed by political economy and political ecology approaches, together with the concept of participation in community development and tourism development models. The research found that many communities achieve a degree of self-management in offering tourism services such as homestays, guided tours, cultural performances and cultural products. Community ecotourism organisations have been established in most communities in order to serve these new activities and to create a collective management process. Similarities in pattern and differentiation in practices among many communities were supported by different outside initiatives, developed according to similar aims and involving similar processes, but there is no uniformity or single model that is effectively applied to all communities. One significant barrier for local communities to take a major role in ecotourism is the access to ecotourism resources, which are mostly located in protected areas and are controlled by state agencies. This has led them to promote primarily their own cultural resources. Consequently, these practical changes have led to a transformation of the dominant development concept from Ecotourism (ET) to Community-based Ecotourism (CBET). Results also show that most practices involve a level of cooperation in decision-making and action with other stakeholders who are in a better position to run tourism businesses. It is difficult for local communities to be empowered to control the whole situation, which is sometimes claimed to be the ultimate goal level of local participation. The demands of marketing and conflict in management among local people, together with the limitations in accessing natural resources, are the weakest points of and constraints on the communities. To deal with these limitations, communities try to create relationships with outsiders. To develop better management of community tourism, many communities rely on help and support from outside, especially from government agencies. This, however, impels the community to become dependent on outsiders. It is also hard for communities to generate a high level of income offering basic services, since there are many levels of demand from different types of ecotourists. In summary, the main contributions of this study are: an understanding of community tourism in Thailand; the experiences of ecotourism development in the community from the leading case studies; directions, roles and responsibilities of actors and community organisations in particular; a range of options for community action in support of a more participatory process in ecotourism development. Last but not least is a set of recommendations for community-based ecotourism development from the level of policy application to practical improvement at the community level.

This exploratory study investigated the strategies that eight older New Zealanders use to enable participation in day-to-day occupations that they need or want to do, in their homes and the community. The types of strategies older people use to overcome barriers to participation and manage limitations are not widely known or reported. Exploring strategies for participation employed by older people is important because the majority of older New Zealanders live in the community and their numbers are growing, and projected to reach 25% of the total population by the year 2051 (Ministry of Health, 2002). New Zealand’s Positive Ageing Strategy (Minister for Senior Citizens, 2001), advocates for a society where people can age positively, where they are highly valued and their participation encouraged. The literature relating to occupation, participation and health was explored, and provided some evidence that older people are developing strategies and, with some education, are able to manage their own health conditions. The assumption underpinning this study is that they are equally able to manage strategies for participation, particularly those devised by older people themselves. A qualitative descriptive methodology was used. The participants were selected following a presentation to a group of older adults and snowball recruitment. They were aged between 73 and 98 years old and were receiving assistance to live in community, which was taken to indicate they had experienced some limitation in, or barrier to their everyday activities, in response to which they might have discovered or developed coping strategies. Interviews were conducted in the participants’ homes, and analysed using a general inductive approach. Four main categories emerged; strategies for keeping me safe, strategies for recruiting and accepting help, strategies for meeting biological needs, and strategies for conserving resources. Overarching themes of managing and getting on with it, sprinkled with a sense of humour by some participants was present in the attitudes of many participants. The study revealed that this group of older people can and do use strategies to enable occupation in their everyday lives, which differ from those recommended by occupational therapists and other health professionals. This finding suggests that health professionals, policy makers and educators have much to learn from older people. The provision of help to older adults should take into consideration the importance of social interactions, not just the physical needs. There is a need for transport to be more readily available and affordable for older people to attend occupations that meet social needs. Health professionals complement the strategies developed by older people, and finding ways to combine the strategies should be developed. Listening to older adults’ current ways of managing and working with them to develop alternate, yet acceptable methods will provide a challenge. Health professionals should take a greater role in advocating for the social and transport needs of older adults. A self-management approach in education for older people, using peers and making use of existing education groups in the community and health system, is suggested. Education of those who engage with older people, such as carers, family, health professionals and community groups should include developing their skills in assisting older people to identify their strategies and developing strategies for the future.

<p>Parkinsons sjukdom är en neurologisk sjukdom, som främst drabbar motorik, men även kan påverka psykosociala och kognitiva funktioner. Studiens syfte var att kartlägga aktiviteter och upplevd delaktighet hos en grupp personer med Parkinsons sjukdom (n = 10). En semistrukturerad intervju gjordes med genomgång av aktiviteter under ett dygn. Data analyserades utifrån aktivitets- och delaktighetsdomänerna i ICF. Jämförelse med tidigare forskningsresultat visade att personerna i den aktuella undersökningsgruppen ägnade mer tid åt personlig vård, men mindre tid åt vila och TV-tittande. Upplevd delaktighet i aktiviteterna skattades generellt som hög, men en negativ korrelation sågs mellan tid sedan diagnos och delaktighet inom domänen Viktiga livsområden. En stor spridning i materialet indikerar att exempelvis rehabiliteringsinsatser bör baseras på individuell aktivitetsanalys.</p>

<p>The aim of this essay is to study the development of democracy in the Halland province, with focus on participating measures. First and foremost to test earlier research about the causes of the development of democracy, which says that the work takes place with obvious variation between the municipalities and that it is caused by economic resources and experienced problems in the democracy. The purpose is also to conduct a general discussion about the conditions and effects of the development.</p><p>Thus the method can be characterised as theory consuming because I as far as possible assume the method that has been used in earlier research. Still, my study is limited to the six municipalities of the Halland province and is therefore a study of few cases. One person in each municipality has been interviewed in order to collect a list of all the measures that have been carried out. This material has been analyzed with a variety of variables. </p><p>The results points out that neither economic resourses nor experienced problems in the democracy can be considered as satisfactory causes, at least not in these six cases. Instead, the results tell that the incidence of driving forces and real enthusiasts is a better explanation, which together with a well-functioning local government administration are the most important factors for achieving positive effects in the participating democracy.</p>