This paper aims at exploring senior-aged labor force participation in both OECD countries and Taiwan, covering the aspects of the historical trends and transition, the dominant factors influencing participation status, the prevailing measures in practice and cross-country comparison. In the process of this study, secondary data including book, journals, article, news clips and statistical reports were collected and analyzed. The fast growing trends of ageing and low birth rate are supposed to bring about labor supply shortage and impact our economic growth for the years to come. Besides, employment and social policies and practices that discourage work at an older age effectively deny older workers’ choice in when and how they retire. This will result in a waste of valuable human resources and has become a top global issue. In conformity with the fast growing ageing population, more and more ageing labor force is projected to be infused into the labor market so as to support continuous economic development. However, ways to facilitate this group’s willingness of continuous work to sustain the aggregate labor supply are considered even a more tremendous issue. With the efforts made by the government as well as support from both employers and employees, task on the reform of pension system and other parts of social welfare system, abolishment of age discrimination, flexibility of employment protection rules and working hours, and enhancement of job training should be carried out promptly and efficiently. / This paper aims at exploring senior-aged labor force participation in both OECD countries and Taiwan, covering the aspects of the historical trends and transition, the dominant factors influencing participation status, the prevailing measures in practice and cross-country comparison. In the process of this study, secondary data including book, journals, article, news clips and statistical reports were collected and analyzed. The fast growing trends of ageing and low birth rate are supposed to bring about labor supply shortage and impact our economic growth for the years to come. Besides, employment and social policies and practices that discourage work at an older age effectively deny older workers’ choice in when and how they retire. This will result in a waste of valuable human resources and has become a top global issue. In conformity with the fast growing ageing population, more and more ageing labor force is projected to be infused into the labor market so as to support continuous economic development. However, ways to facilitate this group’s willingness of continuous work to sustain the aggregate labor supply are considered even a more tremendous issue. With the efforts made by the government as well as support from both employers and employees, task on the reform of pension system and other parts of social welfare system, abolishment of age discrimination, flexibility of employment protection rules and working hours, and enhancement of job training should be carried out promptly and efficiently.

第一章 台灣地區勞動力之一般概況 1.台灣地區人口增加率逐年下降，六十三年底人口總數為15,852,224人，其中男性8,317, 967人，女性7,537,257人。 2. 人口出生率降低，國民壽命延長，使十五歲以上工作年齡人口比重逐漸增加，六十三年時共有9,114千人入武裝勞動力除外，佔58,13% 3. 六十三年平均勞動力達5,383千人，勞動參與率為59,06% 4. 六十三年平均潛在勞動力作十五歲以上人口之32.31%，多因家務□課業太忙而無法參與勞動；因衰老□身心有殘疾之不能勞動人口則佔8,647% 第二章 台灣地區勞動力之就業狀況 1. 六十三年平均就業人口有5,301千人，就業率高33,81%，失業人口有146千人，失業率為1.52% 2. 近年來就業人口逐漸由農業部門轉向工業部門，表現出經濟型態之改變。六十三年十月之就業人口中，屬第一類行業者佔30,37%，第二類門業者佔34,47%，第三類行業者佔35.16% 3. 從事生產作業，運輸設備操作及體力方面之職業者快速增加，六十三年十月達一百八十九萬人，佔就業總數之36.37%，多屬於最近新興之製造業，農業工作者漸減，佔30.17%；管理人員及□技人員比率低；各佔1.870%及4.42%，均有待訓練培養。 4. 自營作業者及無酬家屬工作者所佔比重大，近年雖已逐漸減少，但六十三年平均仍達41.70%，可先台灣地區小型家庭企業組織及自耕農者極多，而一般企業規模亦小，平均一雇主僅雇用19人，今後當積極發展大規模企業經營。 5. 自各區織就業人口者第一類行業偏重於西南部，第二類行業集中於北部，第三類行業以北部，東部較發達。 6. 歷年來失業率顯著降低，六十三年下半年因受經濟不景氣影響，失業情形較為嚴重，十月份失業率增至2.31% 第三章 台灣地區勞動力之年齡組合分析 1. 台灣地區人口年齡結構＊，屬增進人口型，主要工作年齡人口之負擔員相率，因人口出生率之降低而漸減，六十二年時為167.54 2. 六十三年十月就業人口之年齡中位數為32、21歲，失業人口大多為年輕人，約有百分之八十在30歲以下 3. 製造業之就業人口平均年齡最低，中位數為23、73歲，農業最長，中位數為38、88歲，商業35、40歲,服務業30、21歲 4. 各職業中，以管理人員平均年齡最長，中位數為40歲，生產作業等人員及體力工人最年輕，中位為26，12歲 第四章 台灣地區勞動力的教育程度分析 1. 台灣地區近年來教育日漸普及，學校增設，學生增多，國民教育程度日漸提高，尤以職業教育發展最為迅速 2. 各級教育程度人口，參與勞動情形，以師範畢業生之勞動參懷率最高，達80,85%，不能讀寫者參與率最低，僅30.44% ；另與大專以上程度者為53.51%；小學程度者則為 69.21% 3. 大專以上程度之就業人口，大多擔任管理，經理或專技人員，小學以下程度者，則大部份為農業工作者，生產程序工作體力工人等。 4. 小學程度以下者失業率低，高中生因無專長，職校生因未臻標準，大專則無文法科學生多，均不易順利就業而失業率反高 第五章 台灣地區婦女勞動力分析 1. 婦女之勞動參與率隨著社會的進步發展逐年提高，六十三年平均達40,23% 2. 婦女勞動參與率，自年齡方面看，以20∼24歲者為最高15∼20歲次之；自婚姻狀況看，乃以未婚者之80.95%為最高，表現出婦女之參與勞動往往受婚後家務的牽制。 3. 婦女所受教育程度越高者，勞動參與率亦越高，師範畢業者更因職業之關係，潛在勞動比率最低 4. 開發運用婦女潛在勞動力，可調節勞動巿場中之勞力供需，有助於經濟成長。 第六章 未來十年勞動力的推計 根據過去十年勞動力的增長狀況及針對其未來發展趨勢，推計台灣地區之勞動力，於民國六十七年時，將超過六百萬人，民國七十三年時，達約七百三十萬人

In tandem with the economic development in Taiwan, female participation in the labor market has been growing. In 1980, female labor force participation rate in Taiwan was only 39.25% but it increased about 10 percentage points in the following 27 years, rising to 49.44% in 2007. Compared with advanced countries in the OECD, female labor force participation in Taiwan still has a long way to go. This research draws on past patterns in Taiwan and OECD member countries to understand the development of international female labor force participation. The purposes of this study are to understand the trend of female labor force participation in OECD countries and in Taiwan, and to know the impact of the new economy and atypical work on female labor force participation. From this study, it is obvious that internationally female labor force participation has grown from 1980 to 2006. By age groups, it indicates that the highest female labor force participation rate in OECD countries was in the age group of 40-44 while in Taiwan it was in the age group of 25-29. By the level of educational attainment, it brings out that education has improved female labor force participation since the highest female labor force participation rates were in the group of tertiary education in OECD countries, as well as in Taiwan. By sector and occupation, the statistics show that more and more females are employed in the service sector, working as service workers and sales workers. Moreover, the knowledge-based economy and the atypical jobs have lowered the entry barriers of labor market for females and have improved female labor force participation.

目前臺灣女性平均工資遠低於男性，約只佔其百分六十五。社會一般認為此現象主要是由勞動市場歧視(Labor Market Discrimination) 所造成，不過我們卻發現在決定工資的重要經濟變數中，男女的終身勞動參與有非常大的差異，而此差異很可能才是男女工資的主因。在假設一個人的預期終身勞動參與 (Expected lifetime Labor Force Participation) ，人力投資和工資收入三者之間存在密切的關係之下，本文利用人力資本理論(Human Capital Theory)證明了一個追求終身所得現值最大化的個人，其人力資本投資與教育職業選擇取決於他的預期終身勞動參與庀度；另外，本文也從實證上發現當婦女真的離開勞動市場時，離開期間將與工資萎縮率(Atrophy Rate)成正比；受教育程度在國中以下的婦女們，其離開勞動市場一年，不考慮預期因素的工資損失率為0.4%；受高中、高職教育者的每年工資損失率為3.7%；而受大專以上教育的婦女們則為3.8%。總之，本文的目地在證明間斷性勞動參與(Intermittent Labor Paticipation) 乃是造成女性工資偏低的主因。

臺灣和日本都面臨嚴重的高齡化問題，對於高齡化所導致的勞動力減少，最好的因應方式便是提升高齡者的勞動參與率，而日本的高齡者具有世界最高的勞動參與率，本研究藉由比較日本與臺灣的高齡者就業的影響因素，提出促進高齡者就業的方法，發現影響高齡者就業的因素可分為個人特質、經濟因素及家庭因素等。而日本樣本中本人外家庭收入和工作與否有顯著的正相關，而與子女同住及子女親族的奉養金則對高齡者就業的影響不顯著，相對於日本，子女對於臺灣高齡者就業有著顯著的影響，有子女奉養金的高齡者，就業的機會顯著的降低，若想提高高齡者就業，可以完善老人年金制度，讓臺灣的高齡者較不需依靠子女奉養，然而這卻也有可能因為財富效果反而造成就業率降低，最好的方法，無非是宣導高齡者就業的必要，改善社會對高齡者就業的偏見，並提供適宜高齡者就業的環境，如彈性的工時，輕鬆的工作等，並消除企業對年齡的歧視，如此才能活用高齡者的知識經驗，提高高齡者的就業率。

由相關數據可知，台灣民眾涉入股市甚深，故股市的榮枯將直接影響到財富高低，也直接的影響消費與勞動參與的變化。當股市大幅上漲，理論上會出現三種效果。第一種為財富效果，當股市上漲，投資股票的勞動者之財富大幅增加，將會產生財富效果，進而使勞動者退出勞動市場不再工作，導致勞動參與率之下降。第二種效果則為正向之替代效果，當股市上漲，將會使大眾預期未來工資上漲，而使得未來休閒之機會成本上升，而決定重新回到勞動市場中工作，導致勞動參與率上升。第三種效果則為負向之替代效果，因股市上漲，部分民眾會認為投資股市將可在短期內獲取高額報酬，而退出勞動市場以專心買賣股票，此舉將導致勞動參與率之下降。 綜合上述，股票市場之榮枯將反映在總體勞動參與的變化上。故本文研究目的即為探究台灣股票市場的榮枯對勞動參與之影響為何。本研究使用1978年1月至2004年12月之時間序列資料，並以加權股價指數、勞動參與率、經濟成長率與一般生育率為內生變數，以Pesaran and Shin（1998）與 Pesaran et al.（2001）所提出來自我迴歸分配落後加共整合模型（Autoregressive Distributed Lag approach to Cointegration, ARDL + cointegration），來檢驗上述的關係。 主要的發現分為長期與短期兩部分。先就長期而言，當股票市場上漲時，不論對男性或女性的影響皆為正向關係，且影響的程度隨年齡增加而上升。再就短期而言，當股票呈現多頭格局時，可發現股票上漲對男性勞動參與率的影響為正，但其效果非常小，幾乎為零。但股票上漲對女性勞動參與率的影響則是負向關係。除此之外，股票市場榮枯對男性與女性勞動參與之影響效果隨年齡上升而增加，亦即對越接近退休年齡層的勞動力影響越大。最後，為了降低實證模型發生錯誤的機會，並使研究過程更為嚴謹，於是對本文模型和估計結果使用更多的方法加以檢定。 / The paper tries to investigate the relationship between stock market and labor force participation in Taiwan. This study adopts official time series data of monthly labor force participation rate, weighted stock index, general fertility rate, real GDP growth rate from 1978 to 2004, and the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach to cointegration proposed by Pesaran and Shin (1998) and Pesaran et al. (2001). The main finding of this study is that stock market has a significantly positive effect on Taiwan’s labor force participation of both male and female in the long run. In the short run, stock market has a slightly positive effect on labor force participation of male, but negative effect on labor force participation of female. The result is reasonable but not similar with the finding in America provided by Chen and French (2000). In addition, the effect of the stock market on labor force participation increases by age. Finally, in order to reduce the mistakes occurred in positive models and enable the study more rigorous, then uses more methods to test the models and the result.

本文以 1998 - 2010 年臺灣五都改制前 25 縣市的追蹤資料 (panel data) ，探討婦女勞動參與與青少年犯罪的關係。估計方法方面則使用 OLS 與固定效果模型。 實證結果顯示，於控制時間趨勢後，婦女勞動參與率對少年竊盜犯罪人口率有顯著正向影響，符合我們的預期，雖然在大多數的模型中影響幾乎都不顯著，但婦女勞動參與的確對部分的青少年犯罪產生影響。因此，政府應該多提供職業婦女一些社會性的扶助，令婦女在參與勞動時能兼顧家庭照顧與監督的功能。此外，教育程度對犯罪人口率的影響，在有或沒有控制時間趨勢的結果一致。在大多數的模型中，相對於國中及以下的教育程度而言，高中職教育程度和大專及以上教育程度越高，犯罪人口率則越低。因此，若欲改善青少年犯罪的問題，應可從提高國民平均教育程度著手。

人口老化已是世界許多國家所面臨的挑戰之一，不僅使該國老年人口數增加，也面臨勞動力老化、勞工短缺等情形的發生。從臺灣中高齡者勞動參與情形來看，有許多中高齡工作者會在中年時期逐漸退出勞動市場，與世界各國相較，我國中高齡者勞動參與率偏低，對此，如何妥善運用中高齡人口勞動力愈趨重要。本研究從生命歷程觀點出發，將個人的勞動參與視為連續的歷程，且每個人的就業途徑是相異的，在中高齡階段有些人會選擇退休，有些人則持續在勞動市場內工作，故研究者希望能瞭解影響中高齡工作者持續參與或退出勞動市場的轉變以及個人對未來的退休意向為何，對中高齡者勞動參與情形及退休意向有更多的認識。據此，本研究目的在於：一、瞭解中高齡者勞動參與之情形，並進一步探究持續工作的中高齡者在這四年間的工作型態、職業別、行業別以及受僱身分改變之情形。二、分析影響2003年至2007年中高齡工作者持續參與或退出勞動市場之轉變的因素。三、探討目前勞動市場中高齡工作者之退休意向情形，進而分析影響個人退休意向之因素。四、依據研究成果提供相關之建議，供社會工作實務界及政策制定者做參考，以擬定相關中高齡就業之政策。 　　本研究透過衛生福利部國民健康署所進行的「臺灣地區中老年身心社會生活狀況長期追蹤調查系列」2003年第五主波調查資料以及2007年第六主波調查資料進行分析，主要分析可分為三個部分：第一部份係分析中高齡者2003年至2007年勞動參與的情形，研究對象為2003年50歲至64歲到2007年時為54至68歲的中高齡者，共2,207位；第二部分則分析影響中高齡工作者勞動參與轉變的因素，研究對象為2003年50歲至64歲有工作的中高齡者，分析的樣本數共1,194位；最後，主要係分析影響中高齡工作者的退休意向的因素，研究對象針對2007年54歲至68歲有工作的中高齡者進行分析，有效樣本數為1,017位。本研究使用SPSS 20.0統計軟體，以描述性統計、卡方檢定、簡單迴歸分析和邏輯迴歸分析等統計方法進行分析。綜合研究主要發現，可得到以下結論： 一、在2003年至2007年這四年間，中高齡工作者在此階段逐漸離開勞動市場；而持續就業的897位中高齡者，在職業別的改變幅度較大，工作型態的改變則較小。 二、影響中高齡工作者勞動參與轉變的因素包括：中高齡者2003年時的年齡、性別、婚姻狀況、自評健康狀況、受僱身分，以及2003年至2007年自評健康狀況轉變和老年經濟保障轉變等因素的影響。 三、影響中高齡工作者退休意向的因素包括：中高齡者2007年時的自評經濟狀況以及領取退休金等因素的影響。 　　依據本研究發現，研究者提出四點建議，作為未來擬定相關中高齡就業政策之參考：一、學習日本制定「中高齡者雇用法」，延長我國退休年限，並善用過渡性工作的概念，減少中高齡工作者在65歲之前退出勞動市場。二、設立中高齡人才中心，培養中高齡者的第二專長，提供多元的就業管道，並降低年齡歧視的刻板印象。三、經濟安全保障是中高齡者最關注之部分，應促進個人在退休前做好財務規劃，讓中高齡者退休後有穩定的經濟來源。四、培養個人的嗜好及興趣，並辦理退休準備教育的課程或方案，為個人退休後生活做好準備。 / Aging population has been a severe challenge for many countries in the world, it’s not only lets seniors increasing in the country but also faces the problems in aging labor force and labor shortage. From the situation in Taiwan older labor force participation , many of the workers will exit the labor market gradually. In comparison with each country in the world, the older labor force participation in our country is slightly low; thus, it is more important how to appropriately handle older labor force. This study start from the perspective of life course, and view the individual labor force participation as the continual course, and everyone’s employment pathway is different, someone in older will choose to retire, and someone continues to work in the labor market; therefore, this study hopes to understand the factor to affect the changes in the older workers continue to participate in the labor market or exit it and individual’s retirement conations in the future. There are four purposes in this study. First, to understand the situation in older labor force participation, and then discuss the conditions in older workers’ work styles, occupations, industries, and the changes in employee and employers identification from 2003 to 2007. Second, to analyze the factor to affect older workers continue to participate or exit the labor market from 2003 to 2007. Third, to discuss the circumstances in the older workers’ retire conations in current labor market. Last, according to the suggestions from the study results, providing the social workers and policy-makers a reference to draw up a policy concerned to older employment. This study analyzes through the Health Promotion Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare’s “Survey of the older in Taiwan” in 2003 the fifth wave survey information and 2007 the sixth wave survey information, and can divide into three parts. The first part analyzes the situations in older labor participation from 2003 to 2007 and the subjects are the older from 50-64 years old in 2003 to 54-68 years old in 2007, and total 2,207 people. The second part analyzes the factors to influence the changes in older workers’ labor force participation, and the subjects are the older who were 50-64 years old, and total 1,194 people. The last part analyzes the factors to influence the retire conations to older workers, and the subjects are concerned to 54-68 years older who have jobs, and the valid samples are 1,017 people. This study uses the statistic software, SPSS 20.0, and analyzes with some statistic methods like Descriptive Statistic, Chi-square Test, Simple Linear Regression and Logistic Regression Analysis. According to research results, we acquires following conclusions. First, during 2003-2007, the older workers gradually exit the labor market. In contrast, the 897 elder workers who choose to obtain employment fluctuate in large amount in occupation, and in small in work style. Second, the factor to influence the changes in older workers’ labor force participation include the older age, sex, marriage, self-heath condition, employee and employer identification in 2003, and the transition in self-health condition and senior economic guarantee during 2003-2007. Third, the factor to influence the retire conations to older workers include the older self-economy condition, the amount of pension in 2007. According to the study results , I come up with four suggestions to make references for drawing up older employment policy in the future. First, to emulate Japan to enact “Law Concerning Stabilization of Employment of Older Persons”, extending the retire age in our country, and make good use of the concept of transitional job so as to decrease the number of older workers to exit the labor market. Second, to establish the older human resource center , cultivating their second specialty, providing a diverse employment channels with the view to decreasing the stereotype in age discrimination. Third, economic safety guarantee is the most concerned part of all, and we should facilitate each individual to make good financial plan so that the older may have stable economic sources after retirement. Last, to cultivate individual’s hobbies and interests and transact the courses or projects of retire preparation education for the purpose of make perfect ready for retired life.

近年來台灣面臨了人口高齡化的現象，有關中高齡人口的議題成為了學者與社會大眾關注的焦點，其中，自1988以來中高齡已婚男性勞動參與率至2008年為止已下降了約十個百分點，這個現象值得我們去深入了解。本篇論文主要在探討中高齡已婚男性勞動參與的決定因素，研究的資料來源為1988至2008年的人力資源及人力運用調查。其中，我選擇了55至64歲的已婚男性為對象，而總樣本數為51,730，本論文先以probit與bivariate probit模型估計每一個變數對中高齡已婚男性勞動決策的邊際影響效果，再以Oaxaca與DiNardo, Fortin, and Lemieux (DFL)分解模式，試著拆解每一個變數對整體中高齡已婚男性勞動參與率的影響性。 此篇論文著重在兩個主要變數對中高齡已婚男性勞動參與的影響:妻子的勞動參與以及地區性的失業率。近年來越來越多已婚婦女投入職場，我想了解婦女勞動參與率的上升，對整體丈夫勞動參與率的影響；另外地區的失業率是表現出地區勞動市場的重要指標之一，過去的文獻提到失業嚴重的地區可能使當地勞工失業後找不到工作，或使想進入職場的勞工卻步。此篇論文研究結果顯示妻子的勞動參與會顯著的影響先生對勞動市場去留的決定，妻子影響個人的勞動參與機率6~18%左右，而1%地區性失業率的上升，則是對個人的勞動參與機率下降的影響約1.5%左右。在1988年至2008年整體中高齡已婚男性勞動參與率的分解中，勞動參與率下降了3.5%（占整體變化40%），可歸咎於地區失業率的升高。而若妻子的勞動參與沒有提升，仍維持1988年的水準，整體丈夫的勞動參與率將會下降1%（占整體變化10%）左右，本論文認為若政府能維持良好的就業市場環境，將有助於提高中高齡已婚男性人口勞動參與的比率，進一步能有效提高勞動生產力及降低社會負擔。 / As the proportion of the old population increases in Taiwan, issues of older individuals’ behavior attract public attention. During 1988 to 2008, labor force participation rate of older married men declined over 10 percent. What can explain this decline? This thesis tries to find out the determinants of older married men’s labor force participation in Taiwan. I use the data from Manpower Survey and Manpower Utilization Survey from 1988 to 2008, conducted by Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS). The sample comprise 51,730 observations of married men aged 55-64. Older married men’s labor participation decision is treated as a dependent variable and estimates are made with a probit and a bivariate probit model. Decompositions with methodology of DiNardo, Fortin, and Lemieux (1996) and Oaxaca (1973) are conducted for explaining the decline in labor participation rate of older married men between 1988 and 2008. The results indicate that the increase in wives’ labor force participation increases husband’s likelihood of participation and prevents aggregate husbands’ participation rate from declining about 1 percentage point (-8 percent of total decline). However, regional unemployment rate negatively affects husband’s likelihood of participation and can explain at least 3.5 percent (40 percent of total decline) of the decline in husband’s participation rate. This thesis suggests the labor force participation rate could be stopped from declining if the government maintains good labor market condition.