La croissance rapide du commerce mondial au cours des deux dernières décennies a été caractérisée par une évolution économique accrue couplée à de l’instabilité économique des pays émergents. D’après la littérature, la spécialisation technologique est souvent associée à la croissance, la compétitivité et la stabilité économique. Partant de ce double constat, nous analysons dans cette thèse l’impact de la spécialisation des pays émergents sur leur croissance et leur stabilité économique et nous évaluons l’impact de la compétitivité (elle-même liée à la spécialisation) de ces pays sur leurs performances à l’exportation.Dans un premier chapitre, nous délimitons le contour définitionnel des notions de spécialisation selon les différentes théories.Après avoir déterminé le plus objectivement possible une liste de pays émergents en se référant aux critères les plus utilisés dans la littérature et après avoir mesuré le degré de spécialisation de ces pays, nous étudions la carte de leur spécialisation technologique sur la période 1995-2014. D’après cette cartographie, nous remarquons une mauvaise orientation de la spécialisation dans ces pays. Ces derniers se caractérisent essentiellement par une forte spécialisation dans les articles manufacturés à forte intensité de main-d’œuvre et provenant de ressources naturelles et dans les articles à faible technologie qui sont des spécialisations à faible valeur ajoutée. La spécialisation dans la haute technologie est en grande partie tirée par les importations, les produits exportés étant principalement issus d’activités de montage.Dans le duexième chapitre, nous évaluons dans un premier temps l’impact des spécialisations technologiques des pays émergents sur la croissance économique et nous comparons les résultats trouvés à ceux des pays développés et en développement. Nous constatons que les différents types de spécialisation ont un impact positif sur la croissance des pays émergents. Mais cet impact positif, ne peut pas occulter la mauvaise orientation de cette spécialisation (résultat du chapitre 1).Dans un deuxième temps, nous étudions l’impact de la compétitivité (prix et hors-prix) des pays émergents sur l’évolution de leurs exportations. Nous remarquons que l’impact de la compétitivité-prix sur l’évolution des exportations des pays de notre échantillon varie selon l’indicateur utilisé. Il est négatif quand nous utilisons le taux de change et positif quand nous utilisons la productivité.Nous trouvons aussi que l’impact de la compétitivité structurelle, expliquée par les dépenses dans la haute technologie et par la spécialisation dans la haute technologie, est positif. Cela peut être expliqué par la demande mondiale croissante dans les produits de haute technologie.Dans le troisième et dernier chapitre, nous nous intéressons à la relation entre spécialisation et stabilité économique et nous comparerons cette relation avec celle observée dans les pays développés. Nous constatons que les pays dont la spécialisation est basée sur les ressources naturelles sont plus instables et que l’impact de la spécialisation dans la haute technologie dépend du niveau de développement du pays. L’impact est négatif pour les pays développés et positif pour les pays émergents. Cette différence dans l’impact peut être due à la politique d’assemblage utilisée par la plupart des pays émergents, politique qui consiste à importer la majeure partie des produits de haute technologie (HT) sous forme de pièces et composants. / The fast growth of the world trade during the last two decades was characterized by an improved performance as well as an economic instability of emerging countries. According to the literature, the technological specialization is often associated with growth, competitiveness and economic stability. Recognizing this, we analyze the impact of the specialization of emerging countries on their growth and on their economic stability and we estimate the impact of the competitiveness (itself related to specialization) of these countries on their export performance.In a first chapter, we outline the contours of the notion of specialization according to the various theories.Having determined as objectively as possible a list of emerging countries referring to the most criteria used in the literature and having measured the degree of specialization of these countries, we study the map of the technological specialization in emerging countries over the 1995-2014 period. According to this cartography, we notice a bad orientation of their specialization. These countries are essentially characterized by a strong specialization in Labour-intensive and resource-intensive manufactures and low-tech items that are low value-added specialization. The specializing in high technology is largely driven by imports. Exports are mainly drawn by assembly activities.In the second chapter, we first assess the impact of technological specializations of emerging countries on their economic growth and we compare the results with those found in the developed and developing countries. We find that different types of specialization have a positive impact on the growth of emerging countries. But this positive impact cannot hide the misdirection of this specialization (result of Chapter 1).Second, we study the impact of competitiveness (price- and non-price competitiveness) of emerging countries on the development of their exports. We note that the impact of price-competitiveness on the evolution of the exports of the countries in our sample depends on the indicator used. It is negative when we use the exchange rate and positive when we use productivity.We also find that the impact of the structural competitiveness, measured by the expenses in the high technology and by the specialization in the high technology, is positive. It can be explained by the more and more increasing world demand in the high-technology products.In the last chapter, we focus on the relationship between specialization and economic stability and we compare this relationship with that observed in developed countries. We find that countries whose specialization is based on natural resources are more unstable and that the impact of specialization in high technology depends on the country's level of development. The impact is negative for developed countries and positive for emerging countries. This difference in the impact may be due to the assembling policy used by most emerging countries and which leads to import of high-tech products (HT) as parts and components.

O objetivo desta tese é o de oferecer uma contribuição ao conhecimento teórico, nos campos da estratégia e do marketing internacionais, para empresas oriundas ou atuantes em países emergentes. Para atingir esse objetivo, foi desenvolvida uma síntese da literatura sobre o tema e conduzida uma pesquisa de campo, comparando empresas de países emergentes e desenvolvidos na sua atuação internacional, especificamente avaliando suas decisões estratégicas e de marketing durante o esforço exportador. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida com base na análise de dados secundários de comércio e estruturada a partir de modelos teóricos de gestão internacional disponíveis na literatura especializada. Os resultados encontrados indicam que existem diferenças entre os dois grupos (empresas de países emergentes e desenvolvidos) e que estas diferenças devem ser levadas em conta durante o desenvolvimento de modelos teóricos voltados a orientar empresas de países emergentes na sua gestão internacional. Ao mesmo tempo, os resultados da pesquisa não corroboram visões tradicionais sobre a pauta de exportação de empresas de países emergentes, supostamente associada à exportação de produtos pouco dinâmicos. Ao final do trabalho, são apresentados modelos teóricos extraídos da análise dos resultados da pesquisa. Esses modelos poderão apoiar o esforço de internacionalização de empresas de países emergentes, auxiliando na superação de barreiras mercadológicas e conceituais que obstruem seu sucesso. / The goal of this dissertation is to provide a contribution to the theoretical knowledge in the fields of international strategy and marketing for companies from or in emerging countries. To achieve this goal, it was conducted a synthesis of the literature on the subject and a field research, comparing companies from developed and emerging countries in its international performance, specifically evaluating their marketing and strategic decisions during the exporting effort. The research was developed based on the analysis of secondary data and structured on theoretical models available in the international management literature. The results found indicate that there are differences between the two groups (companies from emerging and developed countries) and that these differences should be taken into account during the development of theoretical models to guide companies in emerging countries in its international management. At the same time, the research results do not corroborate traditional views about the exports of emerging countries companies, supposedly associated with the export of non-dynamic products. At the end of the work, theoretical models are presented from the analysis of the research results. These models can support internationalization effort of emerging countries companies, helping them overcome market and conceptual barriers that impede their success.

There are 4 billion poor living on 2 dollars or less per day that make up the bottom of the economic pyramid (BOP). If a company calculates their aggregated purchasing power they could be a huge and profitable market. By studying the roles of the different actors and their preconditions in BOP markets the purpose with this thesis is to find out how the private sector can pursue a sustainable market development strategy at the bottom of the economic pyramid and if it really will help to reduce poverty. By using a qualitative study, this thesis interviews each actor in the Mexican market except the government. Also a resume from a case study presents Unilever’s operations in Indonesia. The theory suggests that the actors in the markets should create partnerships that lead to a social transformation and improvement in the lives of the poor. Therefore this thesis concentrates on sustainable development the entrepreneurs, government, customers and the private enterprises role in a BOP-strategy. From the field study it is clear that it exists a huge informal system in Mexico which makes it hard for an efficient market to work. Our interviews with the NGOs shows that they have access to huge networks, work with marketbased solutions but are dependant on financial contributions from government and private sector. Both private enterprises show that they are working with both process and product innovations for the BOP-market. For example they both sell small sachets of shampoo that are affordable for the poor and they are also cooperating with local distributors to access all the small supermarkets across the country they are present in. Essential for pursuing a BOP-strategy is that a company innovates for satisfying a need at a lower cost. They should also work with partners to get the local knowledge that they do not have themselves. The study can not come to a conclusion if the strategy under study will reduce poverty although there is a clear link between sustainability and poverty reduction. The point with sustainability in the consumer markets is that the products and services offered increases the disposable income, the choices, and the self identity of the per-son living in poverty. Only then can a BOP-strategy develop together with its market, resulting in a sustainable market development strategy, which, when pursued responsibly can lead to a triple-win situation for the poor, private enterprises and the environment.

<p>There are 4 billion poor living on 2 dollars or less per day that make up the bottom of the economic pyramid (BOP). If a company calculates their aggregated purchasing power they could be a huge and profitable market.</p><p>By studying the roles of the different actors and their preconditions in BOP markets the purpose with this thesis is to find out how the private sector can pursue a sustainable market development strategy at the bottom of the economic pyramid and if it really will help to reduce poverty.</p><p>By using a qualitative study, this thesis interviews each actor in the Mexican market except the government. Also a resume from a case study presents Unilever’s operations in Indonesia.</p><p>The theory suggests that the actors in the markets should create partnerships that lead to a social transformation and improvement in the lives of the poor. Therefore this thesis concentrates on sustainable development the entrepreneurs, government, customers and the private enterprises role in a BOP-strategy.</p><p>From the field study it is clear that it exists a huge informal system in Mexico which makes it hard for an efficient market to work. Our interviews with the NGOs shows that they have access to huge networks, work with marketbased solutions but are dependant on financial contributions from government and private sector. Both private enterprises show that they are working with both process and product innovations for the BOP-market. For example they both sell small sachets of shampoo that are affordable for the poor and they are also cooperating with local distributors to access all the small supermarkets across the country they are present in.</p><p>Essential for pursuing a BOP-strategy is that a company innovates for satisfying a need at a lower cost. They should also work with partners to get the local knowledge that they do not have themselves. The study can not come to a conclusion if the strategy under study will reduce poverty although there is a clear link between sustainability and poverty reduction. The point with sustainability in the consumer markets is that the products and services offered increases the disposable income, the choices, and the self identity of the per-son living in poverty. Only then can a BOP-strategy develop together with its market, resulting in a sustainable market development strategy, which, when pursued responsibly can lead to a triple-win situation for the poor, private enterprises and the environment.</p>

Les pays émergents dotés d’un marché dynamique sont devenus l’« espace » principal de la production automobile. Les pays développés restent les principaux exportateurs. Dans cette thèse nous mesurons la valeur des exportations théoriques des pays émergents par rapport aux paramètres (PIB, coûts d’échange) d’un modèle de gravité augmenté. Les exportations de voitures de la plupart des pays émergents risquent de stagner à cause de la faible économie de la connaissance et des coûts élevés d’échange dans ces pays. L’Iran a une opportunité pour augmenter ses exportations automobiles en améliorant la qualité de ses produits domestiques ou en construisant des plateformes exportatrices pour les FMN. Les exportations de la Turquie et du Mexique risquent de stagner à moins que le Mexique augmente ses exportations vers l’Europe et l’Asie, et que la Turquie améliore la valeur ajoutée de son industrie. Le véhicule électrique et la batterie lithium-ion incarnent l’avenir de l’industrie automobile. Il est prévu que la Chine et les États-Unis soient les principaux exportateurs de la batterie li-ion. Il est fort probable que les exportations américaines augmentent surtout vers les pays les plus avancés en matière des technologies de l’information et de la communication. / Emerging countries (EC) endowed with dynamic markets became the main automotive production area. Developed countries are still the main exporters. In this thesis, we measure the theoretical value of exports of EC based on the parameters (GDP, trade costs) of an augmented gravity model. The car exports of the majority of EC risk stagnation because of weak knowledge economy & high trade costs in these countries. Iran has an opportunity to increase its automotive exports under the condition of improving its domestic products and/or building export-platforms for global automakers. The exports of Turkey & Mexico risk stagnation unless Mexico increases its exports to Europe & Asia, and Turkey increases the added-value of its industry. Electric vehicles and lithium-ion batteries are the future of the automotive industry. China & the USA are expected to be the main exporters in the field of li-ion batteries. The growth of American batteries exports is highly probable notably to countries with advanced ICT infrastructure.

Esta tese investiga a relação entre recursos do país e desempenho internacional de Pequenas e Médias Empresas (PMEs) brasileiras. Com a abertura dos mercados globais, PMEs de países emergentes enfrentam novos entrantes no mercado doméstico, se tornam multinacionais com expansão internacional tardia e características distintivas, e passam a lidar com recursos que devem ser adequados para estratégias voltadas ao mercado interno e externo, sendo a exportação o nível menos complexo e mais adotado de internacionalização dessas empresas. Compreender a internacionalização a partir das características da firma e da localização em um país de origem emergente mostra-se um desafio gerencial e teórico. A Visão Baseada em Recursos (VBR) é apropriada para esse tópico de pesquisa, pois permite abordar os recursos da firma e do país na geração de vantagem competitiva sob a lógica da internacionalização. Recursos do país são externos à firma e disponíveis a qualquer empresa localizada em um país (FAHY, 2002) e ainda não foram investigados quanto ao seu uso e relação com o desempenho na internacionalização de PMEs de países emergentes. Para suprir esta lacuna teórica, esta pesquisa se dividiu em duas fases: a etapa qualitativa e exploratória identificou recursos para internacionalização de PMEs de países emergentes. Adotaram-se técnicas de revisão sistemática de literatura, seguida de entrevistas com especialistas, instituições e PMEs no contexto brasileiro. Identificaram-se 11 recursos do país por meio de análise de conteúdo com apoio do software Nvivo. O grau de utilização e a relação dos recursos do país com o desempenho internacional das empresas foram verificados empiricamente na etapa quantitativa e descritiva da pesquisa, em uma Survey com 222 PMEs brasileiras. O desempenho internacional foi medido de modo subjetivo, por um construto de satisfação com atividades internacionais nos últimos três anos, e de modo objetivo, baseado na intensidade exportadora da empresa. A análise dos dados foi feita com técnicas estatísticas paramétricas e apoio do software SPSS. Os principais resultados apontam que os recursos do país mais utilizados são os de acesso à informação, infraestrutura logística e cadeias produtivas bem desenvolvidas, os quais explicam 9,4% do desempenho internacional subjetivo das PMEs brasileiras. Por outro lado, não há relação entre recursos do país e intensidade exportadora das empresas. Houve diferenças no uso de recursos do país quanto às características da empresa exportadora, como idade, escopo geográfico, intensidade tecnológica e tipo de gestão, o que não ocorreu quanto à experiência internacional. Embora os recursos do país sejam utilizados pelas PMEs brasileiras, destaca-se que não são determinantes para sua vantagem competitiva no mercado externo. As PMEs brasileiras estão otimistas em relação ao crescimento nas exportações. Os recursos do país associados à satisfação com atividades internacionais devem embasar políticas e projetos setoriais para internacionalização dessas empresas. Os resultados desta pesquisa cobriram lacunas teóricas sobre o tema de internacionalização de PMEs de países emergentes sob a Visão Baseada em Recursos e abriram novos caminhos de investigação. Pesquisas futuras podem comparar estes resultados com o contexto de empresas de diferentes portes e países emergentes. Possivelmente, os recursos do país menos estratégicos para PMEs brasileiras sejam estratégicos em outros contextos, o que deve ser verificado empiricamente. Por fim, sugere-se verificar quais recursos da firma estão associados ao uso de recursos do país e demais fatores determinantes no desempenho internacional de PMEs de países emergentes. / This thesis investigates the relationship between country resources and the international performance of Brazilian Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). With the opening of global markets, emerging market SMEs face new entrants in the domestic market, become multinationals with late international expansion and distinctive characteristics, and begin to deal with resources that should be adequate for strategies aimed at the domestic and foreign market. Export is the less complex and more used mode of entry of SMEs in foreign markets. Understanding the internationalization through the characteristics of the firm and its location in an emerging country of origin is a managerial and theoretical challenge. The Resource Based View (VBR) is appropriate for this research topic because it allows an approach to the country and the firm resources to create competitive advantage in internationalization. Country resources are external to the firm and available to any company located in a country (FAHY, 2002). There are no researches about the use and relation of country resources to internationalization performance of SMEs in emerging countries. To fill this theoretical gap, this research was divided into two phases: the qualitative and exploratory stage identified resources for internationalization of SMEs from emerging countries. Techniques of systematic literature review were adopted, followed by interviews with specialists, institutions and SMEs in the Brazilian context. Eleven country resources were identified through content analysis supported by Nvivo software. The use and the relation of country resources to the international performance of the SMEs were verified empirically in the quantitative and descriptive stage of the research, in a Survey with 222 Brazilian SMEs International performance was measured subjectively by a construct of satisfaction with international activities in the last three years, and in an objective way, based on the export intensity of the company. Data analysis was performed using parametric statistical techniques with SPSS software support. The main results indicate that the most used country resources are information access, logistics infrastructure and well-developed production chains, which are responsible for 9.4% of the subjective international performance of Brazilian SMEs. On the other hand, there is no relation between resources of the country and export intensity SMEs. There were differences in the use of country resources regarding the characteristics of the exporting SMEs, such as age, geographic scope, technological intensity and type of management. There were no differences regarding international experience of firms. Although country resources are used by Brazilian SMEs, it is highlighted that they do not generate competitive advantage in the foreign market. Brazilian SMEs are optimistic about the growth in exports. Country resources associated to the satisfaction with international activities should support policies and sectoral projects for the internationalization of these firms. The results of this research covered theoretical gaps on the theme of internationalization of SMEs from emerging countries under the Resource Based View and opened new avenues of research. Future research can compare these results with other firms with different sizes and from other emerging countries. Possibly, the less strategic country resources for Brazilian SMEs are strategic in other contexts, which should be verified empirically. Finally, it is suggested to verify which firm resources are associated to the use of country resources, as well as other determining factors to the international performance of SMEs in emerging countries.

En 1973, Alain Peyrefitte publiait son livre intitulé : « Quand la Chine s’éveillera…le monde tremblera ! ». Ce titre prémonitoire s’inspirait d’une citation de Napoléon Ier. Aujourd’hui, le monde occidental doit adapter ses idéologies économiques, financières, politiques et sociales aux nouvelles structures émergentes telles que les « CHINDIA » (Chine et Inde), « BRIC » (Brésil, Russie, Inde et Chine), ou « VISTA » (Vietnam, Indonésie, Afrique du Sud, Turquie et Argentine). La cohabitation voire la coopération avec ces pays sont le nouveau défi du 21ème siècle. Cette thèse a pour objectif d’étudier les rapprochements d’entreprises grâce à la création de joint-ventures internationales. La question est de savoir : « Quels sont les déterminants de la performance des joint-ventures internationales entre pays développés et pays émergents, et plus particulièrement le cas de la Turquie ». L’originalité de cette recherche réside dans le fait de recueillir la perception du partenaire local turc sur son allié mais également sur sa structure commune. Le recueil et le traitement statistique de 123 questionnaires nous ont permis de répondre à cette question. En effet, le principal résultat a montré que la joint-venture internationale implantée en Turquie est plus performante lorsque les partenaires étrangers et locaux contribuent conjointement en termes d’objectifs, d’apports et de contrôles. / In 1973, Alain Peyrefitte published his book : « When China will wake up the world will tremble! ». This premonitory title was inspired by a quotation of Napoléon Bonaparte. The Western world may adapt its economic, financial, political and social ideologies to the new emerging structures such as « CHINDIA » (China and India), « BRIC » (Brazil, Russia, India and China), or « VISTA » (Vietnam, Indonesia, South Africa, Turkey and Argentina). Cohabitation and even cooperation between these countries are the new challenge of the 21st century. This thesis aims to study the closeness links between the firms thanks to the creation of international joint ventures. The question is : « What are the determinants of performance in international joint ventures between developed and emerging countries, and more especially in the case of Turkey ». The originality of this research consists in gathering the perception of local Turkish parent about its partner but also about his joint structure. The gathering and the statistical treatment of 123 questionnaires have allowed us to answer this question. In fact, the main result proved that the international joint venture in Turkey is more performant when foreign and local partners contribute jointly to objectives, contributions and controls.

This thesis analyzes the bank-specific, industry-specific and macroeconomic determinants of bank profitability (ROA) in 31 OECD Countries between 2000 and 2009 using a panel data. Each country

<p>This dissertation is the collection of three essays aimed to evaluate the empirical performance of dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models in explaining the behavior of macroeconomic dynamics in emerging countries. </p><p>Chapter 1, which is joint work with M. Uribe and R. Pancrazzi, investigates the hypothesis that a real business cycles model driven by permanent and transitory productivity shocks can explain well observed business-cycle fluctuations in emerging countries. The model is estimated using more than a century of Argentine data. </p><p>In Chapter 2, a comprehensive real DSGE model of an emerging country is estimated using Bayesian techniques, expanding the data set used in Chapter 1. The goal is to characterize the relative relevance of ten different business cycles' drivers: three sectorial technology shocks, embodied and disembodied non-stationary technology, terms of trade, the world interest rate, trade policy, government expenditures and the country premium. </p><p>Finally, Chapter 3 estimates (using Mexican data) a DSGE model of an emerging country containing many frictions, as has been recently argued, that impose non-trivial constraints for monetary-policy design. In particular, the framework features a sectorial decomposition of the productive sector, intermediate inputs, imperfect pass-through, endogenous premium to finance capital accumulation, a liability-dollarization problem, currency substitution, price and wage rigidities, and dynamics driven by eleven shocks.</p> / Dissertation

Handel och dess konsekvenser för samhället är ett omdiskuterat ämne inom såväl den ekonomiska forskningen som inom den politiska debatten. Diskussionen utgörs av starka motsättningar och bristen på konsensus riskerar att leda till felaktiga politiska beslut. Alltfler handelsavtal implementeras och utvecklingsländers roll på den globala marknaden blir allt större. Det är således av ökad betydelse att utreda handelns faktiska konsekvenser. Syftet med denna studie är därför att analysera hur handel påverkar den ekonomiska ojämlikheten i utvecklingsländer. Studien utgår från hypotesen att en ökad handel leder till en minskad ekonomisk ojämlikhet vilket är i enlighet med klassisk nationalekonomisk teori. Studien utfördes genom en ekonometrisk analys där en paneldataregression på 41 länder över 23 år skattades. Gini-index användes som beroendevariabel, medan handelsflöde samt sju kontrollvariabler utgjorde förklarande variabler. För att minska risken för heterogenitet i urvalet begränsades de studerade länderna i huvudsak till forna europeiska kolonier med kust. Resultatet från studien indikerar att en ökad handel leder till en minskad ekonomisk ojämlikhet. Resultatet bör dock beaktas med försiktighet med anledning av statistiskt icke-signifikanta effekter. Studien finner dessutom att förekomst av korruption är av betydelse när sambandet mellan handel och ekonomisk ojämlikhet undersöks. / The impacts of trade on the society are a common subject of debate, both in the research field of economics and in the political debate. The lack of consensus poses a risk in political decision-making. New trade agreements are being implemented while the role of developing countries is growing on the global market. Hence, there is an increasing importance of examining the actual impacts of trade. This study, therefore, analyses the impact of trade on the economic inequality in developing countries. This study hypothesizes that trade decreases inequality, which is in accordance with classical economic theory. Using a panel data regression on 41 countries over 23 years, this study examines how Gini index interacts as the dependent variable with trade flow and seven control variables. The countries studied are mainly limited to former European colonies with coastal lines to reduce the risk of heterogeneity within the sample. This study finds that trade reduces inequality, although the result should be interpreted with care due to statistically insignificant effects. This study also finds that presence of corruption is of importance when the relationship between trade and inequality is examined.