Increasing global electricity consumption and population growth have resulted in conflicts between renewable energy sources, such as bioenergy and ground-mounted photovoltaic systems, owing to the limited availability of suitable land caused by competing land uses. This challenge is further compounded by the intertwined relationship between energy and agri-food systems, where approximately 30% of global energy is consumed. In addition, considering that agricultural irrigation accounts for 70% of water use worldwide, its impact on both land and water resources becomes a critical concern. Agrivoltaics offers a potential solution to this land use conflict. However, a knowledge gap remains regarding the impact of integrating these techniques on microclimatic conditions. Addressing this gap is crucial because these conditions directly affect the growth and development of crops, as well as the efficiency of energy yields in photovoltaic panels. Experimental facilities offer valuable insights tailored to specific locations and system designs. Although they provide an in-depth understanding of a particular location, the extrapolation of this information to different locations or alternative systems may be limited. Therefore, the broader applicability of these insights to diverse settings or alternative systems remains unclear. In this thesis, a modelling procedure was developed to evaluate the photosynthetically active radiation reaching crops in typical agrivoltaic configurations across three diverse geographical locations in Europe. This is essential for understanding how solar panel shading affects the incoming photosynthetically active radiation required for crop photosynthesis. Furthermore, computational fluid dynamics were employed to model and assess the microclimate of an experimental agrivoltaic system. The developed model revealed significant variations in photosynthetically active radiation distribution across different agrivoltaic systems and locations, emphasising the need for tailored designs for optimal energy yield and crop productivity. Computational fluid dynamics analysis demonstrated its effectiveness in evaluating microclimatic parameters such as air and soil temperature, wind speed, and solar irradiance within agrivoltaic systems, providing valuable insights for system optimisation. By bridging a knowledge gap, this thesis contributes to the understanding of the modelling and simulation of agrivoltaic system microclimates, thereby facilitating the sustainable coexistence of renewable electricity conversion and agriculture.

The purpose of this project was to investigate the viability of daily production planning of the small-scale hydropower plants owned by Småkraft AB in Jädraån. In order to achieve this a number of characteristics of the river and the power plants first had to be estimated. This included the size of the reservoirs located by the power plants as well as the efficiency profiles of the power plants. The above data was combined with already available information regarding the head, peak power production, maximum discharge and flow times between the power plants. A model of the river and the included power plants was then developed using Matlab and Simulink. In the model the reservoir levels by the power plants are directed towards different levels during different hours of the day, depending on when electricity prices are the highest. Data that can be inserted into the model includes river runoff and electricity prices. The model can then be used to evaluate the best way to operate the power plants under certain conditions. For this project, the model was then used to evaluate different modes of operation for three different runoff schemes. The electricity prices that the operation was evaluated for were the average hourly prices during 2022. The model was also used to examine the potential benefits of increasing the maximum discharge at one of the power stations. The evaluation found that moving production to hours with higher electricity prices enables an increase in revenue of about 7-14% depending on the present water flows. There are however many uncertainties involved in the modelling and physical tests would be required to validate the results. No clear benefits of increasing the maximum discharge were found.

Sweden has several environmental goals and one of them is to have net zero emissions from greenhouse gases. Emissions of greenhouse gases are strongly connected to usage of energy and 40% of the energy produced goes to buildings. A method of reducing energy usage is by using an energy audit and energy analysis.An energy audit and energy analysis has been done on a building in Stockholm. The building is 22165m2and consists of offices, laboratories and a restaurant, The aim of the study is to analyze the buildings energy usage with help of the energy audit and then find solutions that reduce the buildings energy usage. The method that has been used in this study have been a case study, observations, measurements and collections of data. A literature study has also been conducted to find potential solutions for reduction in energy usage that may be applicable to Apelsinen. To analyze the building observationswere conducted and information regarding energy usage and statistics where collected. Long term measurements were also conducted on power outlets and the indoortemperature. The energy analysis shows that there is big potential to reduce costs for energy usage by using cost efficient investments and by utilizing existing equipment and operating strategies. The study could show interesting results like that there where a big difference between the invoiced energy and the actual energy used. The study also discusses alternative solutions that might have been used and how they would affect the result like installation of a battery storage.If the proposed solutions are used the energy usage of the building can be reduced by around 392 MWh/year which results in a cost saving around 501 kkr

Södra Klaragatan 4 i Karlstad är en fastighet som ägs och förvaltas av Karlstads Bostads AB. Fastigheten består av två delar, en del byggdes 1895 och den nyare delen byggdes 1938. Äldre delen av fastigheten är förklarad som en byggnad med särskilt värde hos kommunens kulturmiljöprogram. Fastighetens äldre del drar mycket energi och därför är syftet med examensarbetet att kartlägga energiförlusterna samt energieffektivisera den äldre delens klimatskal och ventilation.   Metoden för detta arbete var besiktningar av fastigheten för att dokumentera installationer samt fastighetens konstruktion då upprättade konstruktionshandlingar saknas. Även termografering av fastigheten har gjorts för att undersöka luftläckage och köldbryggor i klimatskalet. För att sedan göra beräkningar i programmet simulink. Utöver det gjordes en enkät för de boende att svara på för att undersöka den termiska komforten i fastigheten.   De åtgärder som testats i arbetet är byte av ventilationssystem från självdrag till F-system eller FTX-system. Även byte av äldre fönster på tredje våningen, byte av isolering på vindsbjälklaget och tilläggsisolering av golvbjälklaget testades.   Resultatet visar att konstruktionen på klimatskalet inte är isolerat utan det är tjocka tegelväggar som beklätts med puts. Vindsbjälklaget har isolerats med lösull och har bra värmemotstånd. Golvbjälklaget är inte isolerat vilket gör att det är mer likt ytterväggarna men har bättre värmemotstånd. Via termografering av fastigheten visade det sig att det finns luftläckage vid fönster och dörrar. Det är antagligen till följd av dålig tätningslist. Ytterväggarna resulterade i störst mängd transmissionsförluster utifrån simuleringarna.   Den åtgärd som sparade mest energi av de simulerade åtgärderna var byte av ventilationssystem till FTX-system. Det kan spara närmare 28 000 kWh/år. Det är en åtgärd som inte bara sparar energi utan säkerställer ett luftflöde enligt dagens lagkrav. Det förbättrar den termiska innemiljön men det är en åtgärd som kräver ett större ingrepp i fastigheten via rördragning vilket kan vara besvärligt utan att förvanska den fina kulturhistoriska interiören. Vid byte av ventilationssystem till FTX-system tillsammans med de andra åtgärderna på klimatskalet kan energiprestandan på fastigheten sjunka från 157 kWh/m2, år till närmare 88 kWh/m2, år.

The concept of a cavity absorber for use with a focusing parabolic trough is developed in this paper. A mathematical model is formulated and used to compare different absorber geometries. Limitations of the model are discussed and within the range of materials and fabrication methods available, the choice of a cylindrical cavity is substantiated. Relative sizes of the gap and cylinder are chosen for a given mirror arc length, focal length, and alignment error. The model is used to optimize these parameters and predict absorber and collector efficiency. The processes of building and testing the absorber are detailed, and test results are reported. Observed performance is significantly below that predicted. Mirror alignment errors are considered the most likely reason for the discrepancy. Other possible improvements to the experiment are suggested.

The future energy transition will reshape the current fossil energy system with low-carbon energy sources. The new technologies and State policies will promote the implementation of different energy carrier sources such as electricity, ammonia, biomass and hydrogen. However, volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity are defining a new global framework for energy systems. Despite Covid-19, the Russian and Ukrainian war, among other disruptive events, the pursuit of zero emissions remains one of the ambitions of the European Union, and renewable hydrogen has been selected to achieve these goals. The European Union through its Hydrogen Strategy aims to scale the hydrogen energy system based on renewable hydrogen in the coming years. For the present analysis, Sweden and Spain have been selected and it has been verified how the energy baseline, the national hydrogen strategies, and the main companies will shape the future hydrogen energy system of both countries. The selected method was a holistic qualitative and quantitative analysis of the energy systems of Sweden and Spain, focusing on the interactions inside and outside the energy system at the national level. The national strategies, the energy background of the countries, and the investments from the OMX-Stockholm30 stock exchange for Sweden and IBEX-35 for the Spanish case were analysed. Only bibliographic sources, internet news, and public reports from brokerage houses were used as material. The main results of the work show two very different ways of implementing national hydrogen policies. On the one hand, Sweden has high ambitions to produce renewable hydrogen up to 5 GW from electrolysers by 2030. Sweden is currently focusing its hydrogen energy system on renewable hydrogen steelmaking projects such as HYBRIT or GreenSteel. On the other hand, Spain has a lower national ambition with only 4 GW of electrolysers by 2030 according to its national roadmap. However, the IBEX-35 companies have already planned more than 13 GW of electrolyser capacity with the Catalina, SHYNE, HYDEAL projects, among others. The main investments will focus on sectors that are difficult to abate, such as oil & gas and fertilizers, and with the participation of the steel industry.

The aim of the thesis is to investigate the opportunities and limitations that utilizations of Vehicle tohome (V2H) and a buildings thermal inertia has in detached houses with respect to demand flexibility.In the transition phase of energy sources there has to be a compensation to the use of fossil energy tofulfill the energy demand. Along with transition there’s a growing need for smarter way of usingelectricity as the consequences otherwise are likely capacity shortages and increase electricity prices.Results from recent research suggest that private household could contribute to even out the powerpeaks by using household appliances based on demand for electricity. Results from earlier surveyresearches has shown that demand flexibility comes with challenges of household comfort andeconomic incentive. With annual data of electricity use from an area of detached houses, provided by Karlstads EnergiAB, a model has been created in MATLAB and Simulink to simulate scenarios of utilizations of V2Hand thermal inertia of a building. The purpose of the model is to provide answer to the goals of thestudy; proportions of moved electricity when using V2H, proportions of moved electricity whenutilize the building thermal inertia and the economic consequences of them both. The results shows that it is possible to move up to 5000 kWh/year in the V2H model and up to 2800kWh/year in the heating model without a theoretical impact on the comfort. Furthermore, the cost forbought electricity can be reduced up to 11 % in simulations from data of 2017 and up to 20 % fromdata of 2021, which corresponds to 700 and 3000 Swedish crowns (SEK) respectively. As for theheating model the reduced costs of simulations of 2017 were up to 17 % and 34 % in 2021, whichcorresponds to 500 and 2000 SEK respectively. Results from this study suggest that it is possible to move electricity from occasions with high to lowdemand and simultaneously reduce the electricity costs. The results are limited to the assumptionsthat the construction of all houses are identical and has the same heating systems along with a fixedtime of the day when the car is connected to the home. The accuracy of the results could be increasedwith complementary information of these assumptions. An omitted question in this study was whetherdifferent strategies for utilizing the varying electricity price affect the result, which is proposed forfuture research.

With the ongoing increasing focus on the development of intermittent renewable sources, there is a clear need for energy storage solutions that can handle large fluctuations in power and store large amounts of energy. Hydrogen i seen as a candidate as a possible energy carrier for this purpose, and many hydrogen projects have been seen occurring over the world. In order to enable further development of hydrogen systems for the production and utilization of hydrogen fuel, modeling can be performed to investigate the performance, feasibility, and responses of these systems. There is, however, a need for further development of electrolyzer models for production, and fuel cell models for the utilization of hydrogen fuels. The goal of this thesis is to further develop models of electrolyzers and fuel cells with an electrical engineering perspective to be used in further research. This is done by reviewing relevant research related to these topics and narrowing down the findings into comprehensive, simple, and dynamic models in MATLAB/Simulink. These models are described in this thesis, along with the obtained static and dynamic results of the hydrogen production and utilization systems. The models include the option to parameterize to the steady-state data to replicate the static behavior and specify dynamics in terms of capacitive effects and reactant pressure controls for the fuel cell. The Simulink models created can be utilized to further develop various other system components.

The task of this master thesis is to evaluate the potential and economic feasibility of a solar photovoltaic project at the Castle Château de la Chaize, situated near Lyon in France. The domain of the Château de la Chaize aims to be more ecologically responsible, by producing organic wine, using geothermal energy and producing its own electricity, using solar energy. The solar system would hence be used to produce the electricity that the castle and the vineyard would use. Since the whole domain is changing in order to be more sustainable, the energy consumption is still unclear. Three consumption scenarios are thus studied to model: the current situation (108 MWh), the change in energy needs due to the renewal of the wine making process (568 MWh), and finally the additional energy demand due to the construction of a spa on the domain lands (1056 MWh). The project site is also situated in the domain, near the Castle. The meteorological data and the shading scene are gathered from databases and site visits. Since the site is oriented towards the North-West and the South and East sides are blocked by a forest, significant shading losses are expected. In order to maximize the potential of the PV system, the use of Li-Ion batteries, to increases the self-generated part of the consumed electricity, is also considered. Simulations for the system production and the matching of the consumption and production is lead using the PVsyst software. Standard modules and inverters are used to run the simulation. The different configurations (energy consumption, size of the PV system, battery,...) are compared using the self-generation rate (part of the energy that is consumed that comes from the PV system) and financial criteria such as the Internal return rate or the profit at year 20. The results show that using a solar system to provide electricity for the current scenario would not be financially viable. For the renovation scenario, the best system design is the southward oriented fixed tilted plane at 350 kWp. It generates a profit of 71 k€ and has a self-generation ratio of 31.5 %. For the spa scenario, the 350 kWp south-oriented system is also the most interesting, with a self-generation rate of 29.8 % and IRR of 9.33 %. The financial analysis of the systems with batteries shows that the investment costs of the storage system are too high, and its lifetime is too short to be profitable. It would be interesting to see the evolution of the energy storage market, that is expected to develop, to see the economic interest of installing storage systems. / Uppgiften för detta examensarbete är att utvärdera potentialen och den ekonomiska genomförbarheten för ett solcellsfotovoltaikprojekt vid slottet Château de la Chaize, beläget nära Lyon i Frankrike. Domänen för Château de la Chaize syftar till att vara mer ekologiskt ansvarig, genom att producera ekologiskt vin, använda geotermisk energi och producera sin egen elektricitet med solenergi. Därför skulle solsystemet användas för att producera den elektricitet som slottet och vingården skulle använda. Eftersom hela området utvecklas för att bli mer hållbar är energiförbrukningen fortfarande oklar. Tre konsumtionsscenarier studeras sålunda för att modellera: den aktuella situationen (108 MWh), förändringen i energibehov på grund av förnyelsen av vinframställningsprocessen (568 MWh) och slutligen den extra energibehovet på grund av ett nytt spa på domänen landar (1056 MWh). Projektplatsen ligger också i domänen, nära slottet. Meteorologiska data och skuggningsscenen samlas in från databaser och webbplatsbesök. Eftersom platsen är inriktad mot nordväst, och södra och östra sidan blockeras av en skog, förväntas betydande skuggningsförluster. För att maximera PV-systemets potential övervägs också användning av Li-Ion-batterier för att öka den självgenererade delen av den förbrukade elen. Simuleringar för systemproduktion och matchning av konsumtion och produktion är bly med hjälp av PVsyst-programvaran. Standardmoduler och inverterare används för att köra simuleringen. De olika konfigurationerna (energiförbrukning, storleken på PV-systemet, batteriet, ...) jämförs med hjälp av självproduktionshastigheten (en del av energin som förbrukas som kommer från PV-systemet) och ekonomiska kriterier som intern avkastning eller vinsten vid år 20. Resultaten visar att användning av ett solsystem för att tillhandahålla el till det aktuella scenariot inte skulle vara ekonomiskt hållbart. För renoveringsscenariot är den bästa systemdesignen det söderutorienterade fasta lutningsplanet med 350 kWp. Det ger en vinst på 71 k € och har en egenproduktionsgrad på 31,5 %. För spa-scenariot är det sydorienterade systemet med 350 kWp också det mest intressanta, med en egenproduktionshastighet på 29,8 % och IRR på 9,33 %. Den ekonomiska analysen av systemen med batterier visar att investeringskostnaderna för lagringssystemet är för höga och att dess livslängd är för kort för att vara lönsam. Det skulle vara intressant att se utvecklingen av energilagringsmarknaden, som förväntas utvecklas, att se det ekonomiska intresset av att installera lagringssystem.

The potential for variable resources to contribute to Svenska kraftnät’s ancillary services has increased in recent years. Concurrently, with the expansion of renewable energy resources in Sweden, the demand for actors to contribute to a more stable power system has grown significantly. The study aims to understand whether photovoltaic panels have the potential to contribute to frequency regulation and participate in the FCR-D down ancillary service. The study has been made in collaboration with the real estate company Vasakronan, and aims to investigate the economic potential of participating with their rooftop photovoltaic panels.    The thesis consists of a qualitative part where relevant actors were interviewed to gain a deeper understanding of the subject. The quantitative analysis involves examining production and price data. Three of Vasakronan’s facilities and their solar park were studied, and calculations were conducted to determine the profitability of acting as an ancillary service. Utilizing data from the three facilities, an aggregation of all 25 facilities in Uppsala was simulated. Three different scenarios were investigated with the first imposing no production requirements. In the second scenario, it was required that at least one-fourth of the installed capacity was produced, and in the final scenario, at least half of the installed capacity was required.    The primary obstacle in meeting these requirements for photovoltaic panels on rooftops is the capacity constraint, particularly in comparison to larger solar parks with significantly greater volumes. With lower capacity, revenues will decrease and there is greater uncertainty regarding guaranteed delivery. Consequently, the possibility of aggregating multiple smaller facilities becomes crucial to fulfill the requirements for ancillary services, as these plants can be prequalified as a group. Various sensitive parameters impact the revenue analysis, and the most significant challenge is the installation cost of the software. Another sensitive parameter is the prices on the FCR-D down market, as trends suggest a decrease in prices with increased market participation. However, there is a prominent potential for adjustments in several of the current requirements, given the dynamic balancing market. Therefore, the recommendation from the study is to continue investigating the possibilities of aggregating several smaller solar cell plants into a common unit. Considering that the foremost investment, the installation of the photovoltaic panel, has already been completed, participation in the ancillary service could to some extent be viewed as an extra income requiring minimal additional effort.