Glycerol is a very promising alternative fuel to hydrogen in fuel cells. However, the utilisation of glycerol as a fuel requires a good catalyst, due to the slow kinetics of glycerol electrooxidation. Gold has been identified as a promising catalyst due to its high activity and stability for glycerol electrooxidation – although the overpotentials are higher than on platinum and palladium. Modification of a nano-Au/C catalyst by the addition of MnO2, in an attempt to further improve the activity and lower the overpotential for glycerol oxidation, was therefore first explored. This was followed by investigations into the effects of gold particle size and loading. Finally, the effect of gold particle size on oxidation of gold-catalysed glycerol oxidation intermediates was also briefly explored. Studies into MnO2 addition showed that the pre-deposition of MnO2 yielded catalysts with smaller, more uniform gold particles, and catalysts with MnO2 contents of 5 and 9 wt % had higher mass activities and lower onset- and peak- potentials than Au/C. All the Au/xMnO2/C catalysts were more active than the palladium- and platinum-based catalysts reported in literature, which effectively demonstrated the advantage of using a gold-based catalyst for glycerol oxidation – especially when supported by MnO2 which lowered the overpotential for glycerol oxidation over gold. For the study into gold particle size, small gold particles of average diameter ≤ 4.7 nm had higher gold mass-based activities than medium-sized (14.7 nm) particles and were at least twice as active as catalysts containing large (≥ 43 nm) gold particles. The small gold particles also gave lower glycerol oxidation onset potentials, which was attributed to the predominance of Au(110) planes on those particles. Glycerol oxidation also appeared to proceed further along the oxidation pathway over small gold particles, which was confirmed in preliminary studies into the oxidation of glycerol oxidation intermediates. However, specific activity increased with increasing gold particle size, due mainly to the higher intrinsic activity of the Au(111) plane, which increased relative to Au(110) with increasing gold particle size. The important requirements for fuel cell applications are factors such as high mass activity, low overpotentials and high stability – all of which were met by the catalysts containing small gold particles defined by predominantly Au(110) facets. Investigations into the gold loading effect showed similar mass- and specific- activities for catalysts with 5-20 % gold loading. However, only the catalysts with higher gold loadings (15-20 %) did not deactivate early during CV, indicating that a larger gold surface area is necessary to resist poisoning at high potentials. On the basis of low onset potentials, high mass activity, and stability at low overpotentials, a minimum gold loading of 12.5 % appears to be necessary for a supported gold catalyst with small gold nanoparticles; although even higher loadings may be preferable for a higher power output in a fuel cell. Importantly, the insights gleaned from this study on the fundamental properties required for early activation, activity and stability of the gold catalysts could lead to a more intelligent design of gold-based catalysts in future.

The optical properties of gold in the visible are dominated by the response of the free conduction electrons to light. In gold nanostructures, the surface charge density adopts a configuration that is constrained by the shape of the nanoparticles. As a result, the scattering of light by gold nanoparticles exhibits a resonant response characterised by a strong scattering and absorption in a narrow range of frequencies. The spectral range of this \emph{localised surface plasmon resonance} (LSPR) can be tuned by varying the size and shape of the gold nanoparticle --- the nanoparticles act as nanoscale antennas for the visible light. Confirmation of this scaling rule is obtained by conducting experiments with nanoparticles of varying size and aspect ratio. Such particles are fabricated by electron-beam lithography, and characterised by dark-field spectroscopy. Not only does the LSPR shift in frequency with a change of particle size, but its spectral lineshape is also modified. The intensity and width of the LSPR are dictated by a variety of factors that are related to the intrinsic material properties (the complex dielectric function of gold), and to the particle geometry and environment. The optical response of small gold nanorods is well described by a simple oscillating dipole model --- the incident electromagnetic field induces a current in the particle that re-radiates light (scattering). A series of refinements can be made to model more accurately the optical response of realistic particles. If the dipole moment characterising the particle is allowed to vary in phase across the particle, retardation effects provide a correction for the effective dipole moment of the particle. As the particle size approaches the wave length in the surrounding medium, the dipolar approximation breaks down and higher order multipoles need to be considered. The Mie theory provides a very accurate description of the response of spheres of arbitrary size. Further, the T-matrix and other numerical techniques can be employed to accurately reproduce the scattering properties of particles of arbitrary shapes. When the scattering sample consists of a collection of gold nanoparticles, the collective optical response is affected by two key factors. First, the measured LSPR is a convolution of the distribution of particle sizes with the individual response of a single particle. This leads to an inhomogeneous broadening of the LSPR lineshape. Second, the light that is scattered by one such particle near resonance can strongly affect its neighbours which scatter light in proportion to the net field they experience, that is the sum of the incident field plus the perturbation arising from the neighbouring particles. The onset of such multiple scattering events is observed even for particle separations that are several times larger than the particle size. Several regimes of interaction can be distinguished according to the ratio separation / wavelength. First, when the particles are in close proximity (separation $\ll$ wavelength), near-field interactions dominate and result in a spectral shift of the LSPR accompanied with a spectral broadening. Second, when the separation is commensurate with the wavelength, a coherent interaction can develop that couples a large number of particles. In ordered arrays, such coupling gives rise to a geometrical resonance that can strongly affect the LSPR of the particles. In particular a sharp spectral feature is observed that depends on both the single particle response and the geometrical arrangement of the particles in the array. The coherence of such multiple scattering in diffractive arrays of gold nanoparticles can be broken by introducing disorder in the distribution of particle sizes, or in the particle positions. The optical properties of an irregular array reflect the departure from a periodic system and the spectral lineshape evolves as the level of disorder is increased. In the limit of uncorrelated positions, the diffractive coupling is suppressed and the response of the collection of the particles rejoins the response of isolated particles.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemical Engineering / Vikas Berry / Nanoscale materials invite immense interest from diverse scientific disciplines as these provide access to precisely understand the physical world at their most fundamental atomic level. In concert with this aim of enhancing our understanding of the fundamental behavior at nanoscale, this dissertation presents research on three nanomaterials: Gold nanoparticles (GNPs), Graphene and ultra-thin Boron Nitride sheets (UTBNSs). The three-fold goals which drive this research are: incorporating mobility in nanoparticle based single-electron junction constructs, developing effective strategies to functionalize graphene with nano-forms of metal, and exfoliating ultrathin sheets of Boron Nitride. Gold nanoparticle based electronic constructs can achieve a new degree of operational freedom if nanoscale mobility is incorporated in their design. We achieved such a nano-electromechanical construct by incorporating elastic polymer molecules between GNPs to form 2-dimensional (2-D) molecular junctions which show a nanoscale reversible motion on applying macro scale forces. This GNP-polymer assembly works like a molecular spring opening avenues to maneuver nano components and store energy at nano-scale. Graphene is the first isolated nanomaterial that displays single-atom thickness. It exhibits quantum confinement that enables it to possess a unique combination of fascinating electronic, optical, and mechanical properties. Modifying the surface of graphene is extremely significant to enable its incorporation into applications of interest. We demonstrated the ability of chemically modified graphene sheets to act as GNP stabilizing templates in solution, and utilized this to process GNP composites of graphene. We discovered that GNPs synthesized by chemical or microwave reduction stabilize on graphene-oxide sheets to form snow-flake morphologies and bare-surfaces respectively. These hybrid nano constructs were extensively studied to understand the effect and nature of GNPs’ interaction with graphene, and applied to address the challenge of dispersing bare-surfaced GNPs for efficient liquid-phase catalysis. We also revisited the functionalization of graphene and present a non-invasive surface introduction of interfaceable moieties. Isostructural to graphene, ultrathin BN sheet is another atomic-thick nanomaterial possessing a highly diverse set of properties inconceivable from graphene. Exfoliating UTBNSs has been challenging due to their exceptional intersheet-bonding and chemical-inertness. To develop applications of BN monolayers and evolve research, a facile lab-scale approach was desired that can produce processable dispersions of BN monolayers. We demonstrated a novel chlorosulfonic acid based treatment that resulted in protonation assisted layer-by-layer exfoliation of BN monolayers with highest reported yields till date. Further, the BN monolayers exhibited extensively protonated N centers, which are utilized for chemically interfacing GNPs, demonstrating their ability to act as excellent nano-templates. The scientific details obtained from the research shown here will significantly support current research activities and greatly impact their future applications. Our research findings have been published in ACS Nano, Small, Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, MRS Proceedings and have gathered >45 citations.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising field in the quest to address health conditions. Green nanotechnology is a fairly new branch of nanotechnology, which aims to produce and utilize nanomaterials in a way that is safe for living organisms and their environment. Plant extracts are increasingly used in the green synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), which involves the reduction of sodium tetrachloroaurate (III) dehydrate by phytochemicals present in the plant extract. It is probable that the green synthesised AuNPs are more biocompatible than chemically synthesised AuNPs as biomolecules of plant origin are involved in the synthesis process. Therefore, this study aimed to explore various water extracts from indigenous South African plants, which included Perlagonium capitatum, Otholobium bracteolatum, Gerbera linnae, Morrella quercifolia, Searsia lucida, Phylica bubescens, Euclea racemosa, Tetragonia fruticosa, and Searsia glauca for their potential to synthesize AuNPs and to investigate their toxicity towards several microorganisms known to cause skin infections. These organisms play a significant role in delaying the healing of wounds. The antimicrobial properties of nanoparticles are increasing exploited in the production of wound treatments.

Highly dispersed gold nanoparticles on metal oxide surfaces have recently been reported to exhibit high catalytic activity for low-temperature carbon monoxide oxidation. Amongst the metal oxides, titanium dioxide, more often the commercial form Degussa P25, has been the most studied support for gold as a catalyst for CO oxidation because it yields some of the most active and stable catalysts. Physical and chemical modification of catalysts supports has been shown to affect their catalytic properties. In this research, modified gold supported catalysts have been prepared, characterized and tested for CO oxidation. Their properties have been compared with those of the unmodified catalysts. Catalysts containing1wt% Au supported on MxOy and TiO2/MxOy mixed oxide (M = Zn, Mg, Ni, Fe, Cr, Cu, Mn and Co; TiO2:MxOy mole ratio of 5:1; TiO2 = Degussa P25) were prepared by the single step borohydride reduction method and it was found that TiO2 gave the most superior activity as support for gold for CO oxidation, followed by TiO2/MxOy and the corresponding MxOy. The specific activities for CO oxidation of Au/TiO2 catalysts per unit of prepared in the range 0.05 to 1 wt% of Au indicates that for catalysts prepared by deposition precipitation, there is a significant decrease in specific activities with an increase with gold loading. For the single step borohydride reduction procedure, specific activities decrease less significantly with increasing gold content, implying that for economic and practical reasons, it would be advantageous to prepare gold catalysts with low gold loadings. Cyanide leaching of 1 wt% Au/TiO2 catalysts at different Au:CN- ratios, to selectively remove some of the gold in the catalysts, shows the activity per unit mass of gold to increases as more gold is removed from the catalyst. This is consistent with the idea that gold exists in more than one oxidation state in the systems and a significant fraction of the gold present in the catalysts do not contribute to catalytic activity. A number of anions and cations have been incorporated into TiO2 as support for gold catalysts and also into as-prepared Au/TiO2 catalysts at levels ranging from 0.05 mol% to 2.5 mol% with respect to the support. The activities of the catalysts for CO oxidation reveal that at the highest concentration levels of the ions, in all cases, a decrease in activity compared with unmodified Au/TiO2 is observed. However, addition of 0.05 to 0.4 mol% of the ions with respect to the support, prior to gold addition, in most cases, resulted in activity enhancement which increased with a decrease in the ion content. Similar addition of 0.05 to 0.4 mol% of the ions with respect to TiO2 to Au/TiO2 resulted in a decrease in activity. Attempts to understand the origins of these effects show that there is a degree of chemical interaction between the added ions and gold.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho de doutorado foi a confecção de materiais híbridos formados a partir da união de nanopartículas de ouro com o polímero poli(3-hexiltiofeno) (P3HT). Os materiais híbridos foram obtidos através da produção de filmes de Langmuir e Langmuir-Schaefer (LS). Nanopartículas de ouro foram sintetizadas em fase aquosa (NpAu), utilizando o método de Turkevich e também, encapsuladas com 1-Octadecanotiol (NpAuOctatiol), apresentando solubilidade em clorofórmio. As NpAu foram utilizadas na subfase de uma cuba de Langmuir e o P3HT espalhado na interface ar/água. Ao transferir o filme de Langmuir formado para um substrato sólido, na forma de filme de Langmuir-Schaefer (deposição horizontal) foi possível obter um material híbrido contendo NpAu e P3HT. As NpAuOctatiol foram utilizadas para preparação de filmes LS híbridos através do espalhamento de soluções contendo uma mistura de P3HT com NpAuOctatiol com diferentes proporções. A presença das nanopartículas de ouro foi comprovada, principalmente, pelas imagens de MEV-FEG. Os filmes LS do P3HT apresentaram anisotropia ótica, permitindo inferir o tipo de orientação das moléculas tanto nos filmes de Langmuir como LS. A incorporação das nanopartículas de ouro no filme influencia na orientação do P3HT, bem como no processo fotodegradativo. Esses filmes foram utilizados em testes de sensibilidade para vapores de compostos orgânicos e água através de medidas de absorção da luz visível. Os filmes apresentaram sensibilidade apenas para três dos solventes testados: tolueno, THF e clorofórmio. Os filmes de P3HT apresentam comportamento eletrocrômico, e esse efeito pode ser observado através da aplicação de potencial por voltametria cíclica durante o registro do espectro de absorção no visível dos filmes. Comportamento eletrocrômico similar foi observado em todos os filmes LS, os quais apresentaram reversibilidade da cor inicial somente com a passagem do potencial inverso ou após certo tempo, o que não se observou para os filmes spin-coating, que apresentou recuperação da cor imediatamente após o potencial ser interrompido. Esse fato indica que o maior ordenamento dos filmes LS mantém a dopagem do filme por mais tempo, e que a presença das nanopartículas de ouro não altera essa propriedade. / The main aim of this doctorate work was the preparation of hybrid materials formed from the union of gold nanoparticles with the polymer poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). The hybrid material was obtained through the production of Langmuir and Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) films. Gold nanoparticles were synthesized in aqueous phase (AuNp) using the Turkvich method and encapsulated with 1-Octadecanethiol (AuNpOctathiol) with solubility in chloroform. The AuNp were used in the subphase of a Langmuir trough and the P3HT was spread at the air/water interface. When the Langmuir film was transferred, forming the Langmuir-Schaefer films (horizontal deposition), it was possible to get a hybrid material containing AuNp and P3HT. The AuNpOctathiol were used for the preparation of hybrid LS films through the spreading of a solution containing a mixture of P3HT and AuNpOctathiol with different proportions. The presence of gold nanoparticles has been demonstrated mainly by FEG-SEM images. The LS films of P3HT showed optical anisotropy, allowing to infer the type of orientation of the molecules in both Langmuir and LS films. The incorporation of gold nanoparticle in the film influenced the orientation of P3HT, as well as the process of photodegradation of LS films. These films were used in sensitivity tests for vapor of volatile organic compounds and water through measurements of visible light. The films showed sensitivity only for three of the tested compounds: toluene, THF and chloroform. P3HT films exhibited electrochromic behavior and this effect can be observed by applying potential through cyclic voltammetry during the registration of the absorption in the visible spectrum of the film. A similar Electrochromic behavior was observed in all LS films, showing reversibility of the initial color only with the passage of the reverse potential, or after a certain time. Such behavior was not observed in Spin-coating films, which showed recovery of the color immediately after stopping the potential. This fact indicates not only that greater order of LS films maintains the film doping, but also the presence of gold nanoparticles does not change this property.

O objetivo deste estudo foi sintetizar nanopartículas de ouro (AuNPs) em meio aquoso, transferí-las para diferentes meios orgânicos, e avaliar sua estabilidade (não-agregação) nesses meios, com o intuito de otimizar a exploração de suas propriedades ópticas. Foi utilizado o ácido tetracloroáurico (HAuCl4) como precursor de ouro metálico em meio aquoso e fez-se a transferência para clorofórmio (CHCl3) e diclorometano (CH2Cl2). Como agente de transferência, utilizou-se o polietilenoglicol tiolado (PEGSH) junto com o dodecanotiol (DDT). O PEG-SH foi adicionado na fase aquosa para evitar a agregação das AuNPs, assim como em fase orgânica, o DDT foi adicionado como agente estabilizador, pois sua cadeia alifática promove interações hidrofóbicas entre as partículas. Avaliou-se dois diâmetros médios de nanopartículas. A eficiência de transferência e a distribuição de tamanho das AuNPs foram estudadas utilizando a espectroscopia UV-Vis, espalhamento dinâmica de luz e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão. As nanopartículas denominadas AuNPs1 apresentaram AbsRPLS média de 0,8314 em ʎmédio = 521 nm e as AuNPs2 AbsRPLS média de 1,2643 em ʎmédio = 526 nm. Quando as AuNPs foram transferidas para solventes orgânicos, os espectros de absorção obtidos por UV-Vis apresentaram deslocamento da banda RPLS para o vermelho, em CHCl3, ʎAuNPs1 = 531 nm e ʎAuNPs2 = 534 nm; em CH2Cl2, ambas as soluções apresentaram ʎ = 530 nm. Este deslocamento é um dos fatores que indicaram a não-agregação das AuNPs. Em DLS, foi confirmada a nãoagregação. Em CHCl3, as AuNPs1 apresentaram eficiência de transferência de 97,27% e as AuNPs 98,88%, enquanto, em diclorometano, apenas 80,21% das AuNPs foram transferidas. As AuNPs apresentaram ao longo do tempo maior estabilidade em CHCl3 do que em CH2Cl2. Após a transferência para o CHCl3, as AuNPs foram separadas deste solvente e redissolvidas em outros solventes orgânicos com diferentes índices de refração: álcool benzílico, etanol e dimetilsulfóxido (DMSO). As AuNPS permaneceram visivelmente estáveis somente em álcool benzílico, pois nos outros solventes foi observado que a solução coloidal apresentou perda da coloração e por UV-Vis foi verificada a diminuição da banda da RPLS em DMSO e a ausência em etanol. / The objective of this study was to synthesize gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in aqueous media, transfer them to different organic media, and evaluate their stability (non-aggregation) in these media, in order to optimize the exploration of their optical properties. Tetrachlorouric acid was used as the gold precursor in aqueous medium and transferred to chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2). As the transfer agent, thiolated polyethylene glycol (PEG-SH) was used along with dodecanethiol (DDT). PEG-SH was added in the aqueous phase to prevent AuNPs from aggregating, as well as in the organic phase, DDT was added as a stabilizing agent because its aliphatic chain promotes hydrophobic interactions between the particles. Two average nanoparticle diameters were evaluated. The transfer efficiency and size distribution of the AuNPs were studied using UV-Vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The nanoparticles named AuNPs1 presented mean AbsRPLS of 0,8314 in ʎmedium = 521 nm and the AuNPs2 AbsLSPR mean of 1,2643 in ʎmedium = 526 nm. When the AuNPs were transferred to organic solvents, the absorption spectra obtained by UV-Vis showed red band shift in CHCl3, ʎAuNPs1 = 531 nm and ʎAuNPs2 = 534 nm; in CH2Cl2, both solutions showed ʎ = 530 nm. This displacement is one of the factors that indicated the non-aggregation of AuNPs. In DLS, non-aggregation was confirmed. In CHCl3, AuNPs1 showed transfer efficiency of 97,27% and AuNPs 98.88%, while in dichloromethane only 80,21% of AuNPs were transferred. AuNPs showed greater stability over time in CHCl3 than in CH2Cl2. After transfer to CHCl3, the AuNPs were separated from this solvent and redissolved in other organic solvents with different refractive indexes: benzyl alcohol, ethanol and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). The AuNPS remained visibly stable only in benzyl alcohol, because in the other solvents it was observed that the colloidal solution showed a loss of coloration and, by UV-Vis, the reduction of the LSPR band in DMSO and absence in ethanol was verified.

Nanoscale materials usually present strikingly different properties in comparison with their bulk counterparts, such as quantum size effects, surface plasmon resonance (SPR). To explore new properties as well as for novel applications, nanomaterials are being extensively investigated. This project investigates the interactions of electromagnetic fields with nanoscale materials, particularly gold nanoparticles (GNPs), over a wide range of frequency bands, including static field, 261 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 2.45 GHz, millimetre wave, THz, and the visible light. Especially, the efforts have been devoted to the study of heating effect of GNPs in association with potential biomedical applications. To explain the electromagnetic heating of GNPs, dielectric properties of GNP dispersions has been studied from 100 MHz to 20 GHz, as well as in the millimetre wave and THz ranges. The static field induced effects on the size distribution of GNPs has also been examined using ultra-violet spectroscopy and correlated to SPR. It has been revealed that purified GNPs cannot increase the specific absorption rate substantially at whichever frequency points of 261 kHz, 13.56 MHz, or 2.45 GHz. However, a greater temperature rise has been observed in the impurified GNP dispersions compared to deionisedwater, after 10 min RF treatment at 13.56 MHz. The measurements on dielectric properties show that impurified samples have much higher effective conductivity than that of deionised-water, while the conductivity change of purified ones is very small and not detectable within the measurement accuracy. This observation supports that the heating effect of GNP dispersions is mostly contributed by the impurities and disproves that GNPs can increase the specific absorption rate significantly. The magnetic field heating at 261 kHz suggests that GNPs have very weak magnetic properties. It has been found that a static field can change the size distribution of GNPs. Up to 2 THz, it is measured that the dielectric properties of GNP dispersions have no convincing change compared to deionised-water, implying that the electromagnetic heating of GNP below 2 THz may be insignificant. In addition, it is confirmed that GNPs have strong absorption in the visible light range due to SPR.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho de doutorado foi a confecção de materiais híbridos formados a partir da união de nanopartículas de ouro com o polímero poli(3-hexiltiofeno) (P3HT). Os materiais híbridos foram obtidos através da produção de filmes de Langmuir e Langmuir-Schaefer (LS). Nanopartículas de ouro foram sintetizadas em fase aquosa (NpAu), utilizando o método de Turkevich e também, encapsuladas com 1-Octadecanotiol (NpAuOctatiol), apresentando solubilidade em clorofórmio. As NpAu foram utilizadas na subfase de uma cuba de Langmuir e o P3HT espalhado na interface ar/água. Ao transferir o filme de Langmuir formado para um substrato sólido, na forma de filme de Langmuir-Schaefer (deposição horizontal) foi possível obter um material híbrido contendo NpAu e P3HT. As NpAuOctatiol foram utilizadas para preparação de filmes LS híbridos através do espalhamento de soluções contendo uma mistura de P3HT com NpAuOctatiol com diferentes proporções. A presença das nanopartículas de ouro foi comprovada, principalmente, pelas imagens de MEV-FEG. Os filmes LS do P3HT apresentaram anisotropia ótica, permitindo inferir o tipo de orientação das moléculas tanto nos filmes de Langmuir como LS. A incorporação das nanopartículas de ouro no filme influencia na orientação do P3HT, bem como no processo fotodegradativo. Esses filmes foram utilizados em testes de sensibilidade para vapores de compostos orgânicos e água através de medidas de absorção da luz visível. Os filmes apresentaram sensibilidade apenas para três dos solventes testados: tolueno, THF e clorofórmio. Os filmes de P3HT apresentam comportamento eletrocrômico, e esse efeito pode ser observado através da aplicação de potencial por voltametria cíclica durante o registro do espectro de absorção no visível dos filmes. Comportamento eletrocrômico similar foi observado em todos os filmes LS, os quais apresentaram reversibilidade da cor inicial somente com a passagem do potencial inverso ou após certo tempo, o que não se observou para os filmes spin-coating, que apresentou recuperação da cor imediatamente após o potencial ser interrompido. Esse fato indica que o maior ordenamento dos filmes LS mantém a dopagem do filme por mais tempo, e que a presença das nanopartículas de ouro não altera essa propriedade. / The main aim of this doctorate work was the preparation of hybrid materials formed from the union of gold nanoparticles with the polymer poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). The hybrid material was obtained through the production of Langmuir and Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) films. Gold nanoparticles were synthesized in aqueous phase (AuNp) using the Turkvich method and encapsulated with 1-Octadecanethiol (AuNpOctathiol) with solubility in chloroform. The AuNp were used in the subphase of a Langmuir trough and the P3HT was spread at the air/water interface. When the Langmuir film was transferred, forming the Langmuir-Schaefer films (horizontal deposition), it was possible to get a hybrid material containing AuNp and P3HT. The AuNpOctathiol were used for the preparation of hybrid LS films through the spreading of a solution containing a mixture of P3HT and AuNpOctathiol with different proportions. The presence of gold nanoparticles has been demonstrated mainly by FEG-SEM images. The LS films of P3HT showed optical anisotropy, allowing to infer the type of orientation of the molecules in both Langmuir and LS films. The incorporation of gold nanoparticle in the film influenced the orientation of P3HT, as well as the process of photodegradation of LS films. These films were used in sensitivity tests for vapor of volatile organic compounds and water through measurements of visible light. The films showed sensitivity only for three of the tested compounds: toluene, THF and chloroform. P3HT films exhibited electrochromic behavior and this effect can be observed by applying potential through cyclic voltammetry during the registration of the absorption in the visible spectrum of the film. A similar Electrochromic behavior was observed in all LS films, showing reversibility of the initial color only with the passage of the reverse potential, or after a certain time. Such behavior was not observed in Spin-coating films, which showed recovery of the color immediately after stopping the potential. This fact indicates not only that greater order of LS films maintains the film doping, but also the presence of gold nanoparticles does not change this property.

A convergência entre a biotecnologia e a nanotecnologia tem levado ao desenvolvimento de novos nanobiocompósitos híbridos com funções sinérgicas que incorporam as propriedades de reconhecimento dos biomateriais com as propriedades eletrônicas, ópticas e catalíticas únicas das nanopartículas. Apesar do recente desenvolvimento na síntese de nanobiocompósitos, a aplicação biomédica destes materiais ainda apresenta muitos desafios, já que não apenas uma conjugação apropriada é requerida, mas também outros importantes aspectos relacionados à biocompatibilidade. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo expandir o campo da síntese e caracterização de nanoparticulas funcionalizadas com biomoléculas. Em especial, visamos o entendimento e caracterização das interações entre nanopartículas de ouro (AuNPs) e proteínas, por meio do estudo de dois sistemas distintos: AuNPs funcionalizadas com Jacalina, e AuNPs funcionalizadas com a proteína BeCen1. No primeiro sistema, o interesse advém da capacidade da lectina Jacalina de reconhecer o dissacarídeo (Galβ1-3GalNAc) associado a tumores. Neste caso, AuNPs formadas na presença do dendrímero poli(amidoamina) geração 4.0 (PAMAM G4) foram conjugadas com a Jacalina marcada com o fluóroforo Isotiocianato de fluoresceína (FITC). A formação do complexo AuNP-PAMAM G4/Jacalina foi confirmada por Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão (TEM), Espalhamento de Luz Dinâmico (DLS), Espectroscopia de Absorção no UV-VIS e vibracional (FTIR). A interação entre as AuNP-PAMAM G4 e a Jacalina parece ser um processo dirigido por entropia com afinidade moderada e formação de complexo, segundo os resultados de Calorimetria de Titulação Isotérmica (ITC) e supressão da fluorescência. Os resultados de Dicroísmo Circular (CD) mostraram que a conjugação da Jacalina com as AuNP-PAMAM G4 não alterou sua estrutura secundária. Testes realizados em cultura de células revelaram que o complexo apresenta maior afinidade e citotoxicidade pelas células de carcinoma do colo de útero humano (HeLa) se comparadas com fibroblastos saudáveis de adipócitos de camundongo (L929). Estes resultados são relevantes uma vez que demonstram o potencial do complexo AuNP-PAMAM G4/Jacalina-FTIR para aplicações biomédicas incluindo diagnóstico e tratamento de câncer. O segundo sistema é interessante devido a habilidade da proteína BeCen1 em formar filamentos nanométricos em função da temperatura. As AuNPs foram formadas na presença da proteína utilizando ácido fórmico diluído como agente redutor e o excesso de proteína foi separado por Cromatografia de Exclusão Molecular. Análises de CD revelaram uma pequena diminuição no conteúdo de α-hélices, confirmado por FTIR, o que pode estar relacionado à interação das AuNPs com os grupamentos amida desta proteína. Medidas de espalhamento de luz revelaram um aumento da turbidez da suspensão do complexo AuNP-BeCen1 com o aumento da temperatura e imagens de TEM, com e sem aquecimento, confirmaram uma mudança de padrão no arranjo das AuNPs. Estes resultados revelam a possibilidade de fabricação de nanobiocompósitos termorresponsivos, o que pode ser muito importante para aplicações em nanodispositivos. / The convergence between biotechnology and nanotechnology has led to the development of new hybrid nanocomposites that conjugate the bio-recognization properties of biomaterials and the unique electronic, optic and catalytic properties of the nanoparticles. Despite the recent advances in the development of nanobiocomposites, the biomedical applications of these materials are still limited, among other factors, by the low efficiency of functionalization and biocompatibility. The present study was aimed at developing proteinconjugated nanoparticles for application in nanomedicine. Our main focus were the understanding and characterization of the interactions between proteins and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), which was accomplished using two distinct systems, viz.: Jacalin-functionalized AuNPs, and Becen1-functionalized AuNPs. In the former, the interest is due the capability of the protein Jacalin of recognize the disaccharide (Galβ1-3GalNAc), largely expressed in some tumors cells. AuNPs were synthesized in the presence of the polyamido amine generation 4.0 (PAMAM G4) and conjugated with a Jacalin target with the fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC). The excess of protein was removed by centrifugation and the complex formation was confirmed by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), UV-VIS Absorption and Vibrational Spectroscopy (FTIR). The interactions between AuNP-PAMAM G4 and Jacalin seemed to be driven by an entropic process with moderate affinity and complex formation, as revealed by Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) and quenching fluorescence measurements. Furthermore, Circular Dichroism (CD) analyses revealed that protein maintained its secondary structure upon conjugation with the nanoparticles. In vitro tests revealed that the AuNPs/Jacalin complexes presented higher affinity and cytotoxicity against human cervical cancer cell (HeLa) compared to healthy mouse fibroblasts (L929). These results are relevant, since the AuNP-PAMAM G4/Jacalin-FITC complex may be used for biomedical applications including cancer treatment and diagnostics. The second nanocomplex, comprising AuNPs and BeCen1, was chosen due to the ability of BeCen 1 to polymerize in the form of nanometric filaments as a function of temperature. The AuNPs were formed in the presence of the protein using diluted formic acid as reducing agent and the excess of protein was removed by Molecular Exclusion Chromatography. CD analysis showed a decrease in the -helix structures confirmed by FTIR, which may be related to the interaction between the AuNPs and the amide groups of the protein. Light scattering measurements revealed an increase in the turbidity of the dispersions upon increasing the temperature, indicating a change in the arrangement of the AuNPs. Such BeCen-1 induced alignment was confirmed by TEM images. The latter results point to the possibility of fabrication of novel thermoresponsive nanobiocomposites, which are of great relevance for nanodevices applications.