Les hydrazines sont des molécules très importantes en chimie organique, ainsi qu’en industrie pharmaceutique, celles-ci pouvant être utilisées pour la synthèse d’une multitude d’hétérocycles. Il existe de nombreuses stratégies de synthèse de ces composés. Cependant, ces méthodes peuvent être limitées par certains problèmes, tels que la présence de groupements protecteurs non recyclables ou encore la faible diversité des produits obtenus. Les diazirines présentent un fort potentiel pour être utilisées comme alternative à ces préparations, puisque ces molécules peuvent réagir avec des nucléophiles pour donner les diaziridines substituées correspondantes, puis être hydrolysées pour permettre la formation d’hydrazines monosubstituées, ainsi que de cétones, pouvant être réutilisées pour la synthèse de la diazirine de départ. Les additions nucléophiles sur les diazirines ont déjà été étudiées, mais des problèmes d’isolation de produit, de reproductibilité et d’hydrolyse des composés ont limité leurs utilisations. Afin de pallier aux difficultés rencontrées, l’utilisation d’une diazirine dérivée d’une cétone non-énolisable semble prometteuse. Ainsi, la diazirine choisie pour effectuer la méthodologie est celle dérivée de l’adamantanone. Le premier chapitre de cette thèse étudie le potentiel électrophile de la diazirine adamantane par des réactions d’addition nucléophile. Dépendamment du composé additionné, les produits obtenus sont les diaziridines ou les hydrazones monosubstituées. L’hydrolyse de ces dernières molécules étant difficiles, l’obtention directe des hydrazines n’est pas possible. Cependant, l’utilisation des composés d’addition afin effectuer un transfert direct d’hydrazines sur un autre composé pour l’obtention d’hétérocycles est une alternative intéressante. Ainsi, les réactions d’addition nucléophile sont utilisées en tandem avec des réactions de transfert d’hydrazines pour permettre la synthèse de pyrazoles et d’indoles. Aussi, l’utilisation de l’adamantanone comme support de diazirine permet le recyclage de cette molécule, pouvant être réutilisée pour la synthèse de la diazirine de départ. Le deuxième chapitre traite de la synthèse d’hydrazines N,N-disubstituées par l’utilisation d’un réarrangement observé lors des additions d’un nucléophile puis d’un électrophile, suivies d’une hydrolyse directe de l’hydrazone obtenue. La synthèse des hydrazines N,N’-disubstituées n’étant pas possible avec la méthodologie développée, une méthode dérivée est mise en place pour permettre leur obtention. Enfin, le dernier chapitre porte sur l’utilisation des hydrazines disubstituées obtenues précedemment pour la synthèse d’hétérocycles. Ainsi, les hydrazines N,N-disubstituées sont utilisées pour la synthèse de N- aminopyrroles et d’indoles N-protégés et les hydrazines N,N’-disubstituées participent à des réactions de formation de pyrazolidines.

Neste trabalho foram preparados materiais constituídos por Al2O3 e Nb2O5, na forma de grãos esferoidais para serem usados como suporte de catalisadores aplicados à propulsão. Os suportes foram preparados por quatro diferentes métodos: impregnação úmida do óxido de alumínio moldado por uma solução alcoólica de cloreto de nióbio (NbCl5); impregnação seca do óxido de alumínio por uma solução alcoólica de NbCl5; co-precipitação dos precursores de óxido de alumínio e óxido de nióbio; e mistura física dos precursores desses óxidos previamente autoclavados separadamente. Entre esses métodos, os suportes que apresentaram melhores características para aplicação em propulsão a monopropelente hidrazina (N2H4) foram aqueles preparados por mistura física, contendo 20% m/m de óxido de nióbio (Su20MF) e por impregnações secas sucessivas, contendo 10% m/m de óxido de nióbio (Su10IS). A adição do óxido de nióbio ao óxido de alumínio resultou em acentuado aumento da resistência mecânica à compressão, mas não causou variação significativa do número e força dos sítios ácidos de Lewis, em função dos tratamentos de calcinação efetuados a 873 K por 5 horas. Todos os suportes foram impregnados com solução de H2IrCl6 e após tratamentos de redução sob H2, obteve-se catalisadores de irídio suportados, com elevados teores metálicos, CAT-20Ir, contendo aproximadamente 20% m/m de Ir disperso na superfície do suporte Su10IS, e CAT-27Ir, contendo aproximadamente 27% m/m de Ir disperso na superfície do suporte Su20MF. Caracterizações por quimissorção de H2 e por MET/EDS mostraram que o irídio fixou-se quase que exclusivamente sobre o óxido de alumínio, gerando partículas metálicas com diâmetros médios tanto maiores quanto menores as áreas superficiais expostas desse óxido. Testes efetuados em bancada com as reações de decomposição de hidrazina e de amônia revelaram que a reação com hidrazina ocorre de forma completa em temperaturas acima de 393 K, gerando exclusivamente amônia e nitrogênio, enquanto que a decomposição da amônia inicia-se em temperaturas superiores e diferenciadas, dependendo do catalisador. Durante a reação da hidrazina, a reação de decomposição da amônia formada, produzindo hidrogênio foi acompanhada, sendo tanto menor quanto maior o diâmetro médio das partículas de irídio, sendo que a seletividade ao hidrogênio mostrou ser uma função linear do diâmetro médio, ao menos entre 24 Å e 40 Å. Esse comportamento se deve ao fato de que a decomposição da amônia é uma reação sensível à estrutura da fase ativa destes catalisadores. Já os testes efetuados em propulsores de 5 N de empuxo no Banco de Teste com Simulação de Altitude (BTSA), evidenciaram um aumento da temperatura, da pressão de câmara e também da força de empuxo, devido à menor decomposição da amônia e maiores tempos para o início da decomposição da hidrazina, efeito este relacionado ao número específico de sítios ativos presentes nas superfícies dos catalisadores. / In this work were prepared supports consisting of Al2O3 and Nb2O5, in the form of spheroidal grains by four different methods: wet impregnation of the aluminum oxide molded an alcoholic solution of niobium chloride (NbCl5); dry impregnation of aluminum oxide in an alcoholic solution of NbCl5; co-precipitation of the precursor of aluminum oxide and niobium oxide; and physical mixing of precursors of these oxides previously autoclaved separately. Among these methods, the supports that showed the best characteristics for application in propulsion monopropellant hydrazine were those prepared by physical mixture containing 20 wt % niobium oxide (Su20MF) and successive dry impregnations, containing 10 wt % niobium oxide (Su10IS).The addition of niobium oxide in aluminum oxide resulted in a significant increase in compressive strength of these selected supports, but caused no significant change in the number and strength of Lewis acid site, which was attributed to the calcination treatment carried out at 873 K by 5 hours. These supports were impregnated with H2IrCl6 solution and after reduction treatment under H2, were obtained supported iridium catalysts with high metal contents, named CAT-20Ir containing approximately 20 wt % of Ir dispersed on the support Su10IS and CAT-27Ir containing approximately 27 wt % of Ir Su20MF dispersed on the support. Characterization by chemisorption of H2 and by TEM/EDS showed that the iridium was anchored almost exclusively on aluminum oxide, generating metal particles with average diameters greater. Tests carried out in laboratory with decomposition of hydrazine and ammonia revealed that the reaction with hydrazine is completely in temperatures above 393 K, generating only ammonia and nitrogen, while the decomposition of ammonia, the reaction initiation above different temperatures depending on the catalyst. During decomposition hydrazine another accompanied reaction was the decomposition of ammonia generated, producing hydrogen. The selectivity to hydrogen showed to be a linear function of the mean diameter particle of iridium, least between 24 Å and 40 Å , these results were attributed to the fact that the decomposition of ammonia is a sensitive reaction to the structure of the active phase of these catalysts. Tests carried out at the Altitude Simulation Test Facility (BTSA/INPE) showed the following effects caused by Nb2O5 addition to iridium catalyst supports: increase of temperature, chamber pressure and thrust power, due to a smaller ammonia decomposition; and increase of time for hydrazine decomposition when there is an excessive reduction of the specific number of active sites.

This study aims synthesis of metal/polymer one dimensional nanostructures by micelle formation, reduction, and electrospinning route, and to analyze the morphological characteristics of composite nanofibers. The study was carried out in three main steps. First, the reverse micelle structures were established between the anionic surfactant and the metal ion. The surfactant acts as an agent to bind metal ions together so that the arrangements of metal ions can be controlled in the solution. As the surfactant concentration increases, reverse micelles grow and reverse wormlike micelle structures are observed. Wormlike micelles are elongated semi flexible aggregates which form a spherocylinder form repeating units. Metal ions are in the core and surrounded with the surfactant. The polymer attached to the wormlike structure acts as a shield and prevents phase separation in a hydrophilic medium. Different polymer and surfactant concentrations were tried to determine the optimum polymer and surfactant concentrations for reverse micelle formation. The size analyses of the reverse micelle structures were done by dynamic light scattering technique. In the second step, metal ions in the micelles were reduced by using hydrazine hydrate to obtain metal cores in the center of wormlike micelles. Finally, electrospinning was carried at room temperature and in air atmosphere. The characterization of nano composites was done by Scanning Electron Microscopy. It was found that the size of the reverse micelle structures affects the distribution of metal nano partices in polymer nano fibers. In order to distribute the metal nano particles homogeneously, the optimum size of reverse wormlike micelles was found to be between 420 and 450 nm.

Amine boranes have recently been considered as solid hydrogen storage materials with high capability of hydrogen storage. Dimethylamine borane is one of the promising amine boranes with high theoretical gravimetric capacity of 16.9 wt%. Dimethylamine borane can undergo dehydrogenation only in the presence of a suitable catalyst at moderate temperature. In this project, throughout the dehydrogenation of dimethylamine borane (DMAB), the catalytic activity of ruthenium(III) acetylacetonate was examined for the first time. During the catalytic reaction, formation of a new in-situ ruthenium(II) species, [Ru{N2Me4}3(acac)H], is observed. Mercury poisoning experiment indicates that the in-situ ruthenium(II) species is a homogeneous catalyst in the dehydrogenation of dimethylamine borane. Kinetics of catalytic dehydrogenation of dimethylamine borane starting with ruthenium(III) acetylacetonate was investigated depending on catalyst concentration, substrate concentration and temperature. As a result, the hydrogen generation rate was found to be first-order with respect to catalyst concentration and zero-order regarding the substrate concentration. Besides, evaluation of the kinetic data yielded that the activation parameters for dehydrogenation reaction: the activation energy, Ea = 85 &plusmn / 2 kJ&bull / mol-1 / the enthalpy of activation, DH# = 82 &plusmn / 2 kJ&bull / mol-1 and the entropy of activation / DS# = -85 &plusmn / 5 J&bull / mol-1&bull / K-1. Additionally, before deactivation, [Ru{N2Me4}3(acac)H] provides 1700 turnovers over 100 hours in hydrogen evolution from the dehydrogenation of dimethlyamine borane. [Ru{N2Me4}3(acac)H] complex formed during the dehydrogenation of dimethylamine borane was isolated and characterized by UV-Visible, FTIR, 1H NMR, and Mass Spectroscopy. The isolated ruthenium(II) species was also tested as homogeneous catalyst in the dehydrogenation of dimethylamine borane.

This dissertation presents the preparation and characterization of rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite, and investigation of their catalytic activity in hydrogen generation from the hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane and ammonia-borane. Rh+3 ions were impregnated on hydroxyapatite by ion-exchange / then rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite were formed in-situ during the hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane at room temperature. The rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite were isolated as black powders by centrifugation and characterized by ICP-OES, SEM, TEM, EDX, XRD, XPS, and N2 adsorption-desorption spectroscopy. Rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite have a mean particle size of 2.7&plusmn / 0.7 nm. The catalytic activity of rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite was tested separately in the hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane and ammonia-borane. The hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane was started by adding the precatalysts, Rh+3-exchanged hydroxyapatite into the aqueous solution of hydrazine-borane / whereas, the hydrolysis of ammonia-borane was initiated by adding the catalyst rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite which have been isolated from the first run of hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane. Rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite provide a turnover frequency value of 6700 h-1 in the hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane at room temperature. The reuse experiments reveal that these supported nanoparticles are isolable, bottlable, and redispersible in solution. Furthermore, they retain 62 % of their initial activity at the fifth run in the hydrolysis of hydrazine-borane with release of 3 equivalents hydrogen. Activity of rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite is maintained after the redispersion of the sample and 3 equivalents hydrogen generation from the hydrolysis of ammonia-borane confirms the activity of preformed catalyst. Rhodium(0) nanoparticles supported on hydroxyapatite provide a turnover frequency value of 3990 h-1 in the hydrolysis of ammonia-borane at room temperature.

This dissertation presents the theory and practice of designing, synthesizing and using peptidomimetics to disrupt protein-protein interactions. Our general strategy is to design and synthesize peptidomimetics that will mimic peptide secondary structures (alpha-helices and beta-sheets). Chapter One is a theoretical examination of the feasibility of using beta-sheet mimics called molecular clamps to inhibit substrate-receptor interactions by blocking the substrate rather than the receptor or enzyme. Several natural and synthetic examples of this approach are given in support of this concept. We also present the results of a kinetic modeling study and a consideration of which types of systems would be the best candidates for a substrate-targeted inhibitor approach. Chapter Two relates a continuation of previous work in our lab to synthesize five novel beta-protected hydrazino amino acids. These hydrazines are essential precursors for synthesizing constrained beta-strand mimetics. We showed that we could selectively deprotect the alpha-nitrogen of the hydrazines, and we synthesized several novel examples of polar beta-protected hydrazino amino acids. Chapter Three discusses the design and synthesis of small-molecule and peptidomimetic MDM2 inhibitors, including our work on synthesizing a new class of alpha-helix mimics that have improved water solubility compared with previously reported examples of alpha-helix mimics. As with the constrained beta-strand mimics described in Chapter Two, the synthesis of novel hydrazino amino acid precursors is a key step in synthesizing our alpha-helix mimics. One isoleucine hydrazine derivative was synthesized, and progress was made toward synthesizing two other hydrazines from tryptophan. In addition, the synthesis of three potential small-molecule inhibitors of MDM2 is described. Chapter Four describes the use of the GLIDE program to design and evolve an alpha-helix mimic that will interact with the pro-apoptotic protein Bax. Progress toward the synthesis of this compound is also reported.

Το οστό αποτελεί ένα σύνθετο υλικό, χαρακτηριζόμενο από μια πολύπλοκη ιεραρχική δομή. Συνίσταται από τρεις φάσεις, μια ανόργανη, μια οργανική και μια υδατική. Το ανόργανο μέρος του, το οποίο αντιστοιχεί περίπου σε 60-65% της κατά βάρος περιεκτικότητάς του, αποτελείται από ένα χημικό και δομικό ανάλογο του φωσφορικού άλατος υδροξυαπατίτης [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], το οποίο γι’ αυτό το λόγο καλείται βιοαπατίτης ή βιολογικός απατίτης. Το οργανικό μέρος αποτελεί περίπου το 30% της κ.β. περιεκτικότητάς του και κυριαρχείται από την παρουσία της πρωτεΐνης κολλαγόνο (τύπου Ι), το ποσοστό της οποίας ανέρχεται σε 90% περίπου της οργανικής φάσης. Το υπόλοιπο τμήμα αυτής καταλαμβάνεται από ένα πλήθος άλλων πρωτεϊνών, οργανικών ενώσεων και κυττάρων. Το εναπομένον 5-10% της μάζας του οστού αποτελείται από νερό. Η σύσταση του οστού και πιο συγκεκριμένα η περιεκτικότητά του σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο (των οποίων η συνολική % κ.β. περιεκτικότητα ανέρχεται σε πάνω από 95% επί ξηρού οστού) διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στις μηχανικές ιδιότητές του, όπως είναι η αντοχή σε θραύση, η ακαμψία και η ελαστικότητα. Οι μεταβολές των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων σχετίζονται με παθολογικές καταστάσεις των οστών κατά τις οποίες είναι πολύ πιθανή η εμφάνιση κατάγματος, όπως είναι η οστεοπόρωση –από την οποία πάσχει ένα σημαντικό μέρος του πληθυσμού– αλλά και άλλες λιγότερο συνηθισμένες παθήσεις όπως η οστεομαλακία και η ατελής οστεογένεση. Οι παραπάνω ασθένειες και κυρίως η οστεοπόρωση, διαγιγνώσκονται μέχρι σήμερα με μέτρηση της οστικής πυκνότητας (Bone Mineral Density, BMD). Η συγκεκριμένη όμως παράμετρος υστερεί στην αξιόπιστη πρόβλεψη του κινδύνου εμφάνισης καταγμάτων. Για το λόγο αυτό, η νέα προσέγγιση στο συγκεκριμένο ζήτημα απαιτεί ως διαγνωστικό εργαλείο τη γνώση παραμέτρων που σχετίζονται άμεσα με τις μηχανικές ιδιότητες, ανάγοντας έτσι και τη σύσταση των οστών ως ένα πιθανό αξιόπιστο παράγοντα εκτίμησης του κινδύνου εμφάνισης κατάγματος. Αν και η σύσταση του οστού μπορεί να υπολογιστεί με διάφορες αναλυτικές τεχνικές, η χρήση της φασματοσκοπίας Raman (RS) αποτελεί μια προσέγγιση στο συγκεκριμένο ζήτημα η οποία παρουσιάζει σημαντικά πλεονεκτήματα, όπως είναι η δυνατότητα ταυτόχρονου προσδιορισμού της περιεκτικότητας σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο, η ελάχιστη επεξεργασία του προς ανάλυση δείγματος ενώ ήδη έχουν αρχίσει να γίνονται προσπάθειες και για την ανάπτυξη μεθόδου για την in vivo ανάλυση των οστών. Λαμβάνοντας επομένως υπόψη τα σημαντικά πλεονεκτήματά της φασματοσκοπίας Raman και τη σπουδαιότητα της σύστασης στον καθορισμό της ποιότητας του οστού, επιχειρήθηκε η ανάπτυξη μεθοδολογίας για την ποσοτική ανάλυση της περιεκτικότητας των οστών σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο με τη βοήθεια της φασματοσκοπίας Raman. Για το σκοπό αυτό, συλλέχθηκαν δείγματα βόειων οστών (από το συμπαγές και το σπογγώδες τμήμα) και αφού πραγματοποιήθηκε χημικός καθαρισμός τους από ξένες οργανικές ενώσεις (λιπίδια, μυελός, κύτταρα), ορισμένα δοκίμια χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την απομόνωση του κολλαγόνου –κατόπιν διάλυσης του βιοαπατίτη με EDTA– ενώ κάποια άλλα δοκίμια χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την απομόνωση του βιοαπατίτη –με διάλυση του κολλαγόνου σε υδραζίνη. Στα πλαίσια χαρακτηρισμού των δοκιμίων, μελετήθηκαν οι επιδράσεις που επάγουν η διαδικασία του χημικού καθαρισμού και το πρωτόκολλο απομόνωσης κολλαγόνου στην κρυσταλλική δομή του βιοαπατίτη. Μετρήσεις με τη βοήθεια της περίθλασης ακτίνων Χ (XRD), αποκάλυψαν ότι ενώ ο χημικός καθαρισμός δεν επηρεάζει τη δομή των δοκιμίων ωστόσο, το πρωτόκολλο απομάκρυνσης του κολλαγόνου με υδραζίνη έχει ως συνέπεια την αύξηση της κρυσταλλικότητας και του μεγέθους των κρυσταλλιτών του βιοαπατίτη σε σημαντικό βαθμό. Επιπλέον, από μελέτες με φασματοσκοπία υπερύθρου και XRD προέκυψε ότι η μεταβολή των παραπάνω παραμέτρων οφείλεται στην απομάκρυνση των ιόντων CO32- και HPO42- από τους κρυσταλλίτες του βιοαπατίτη, η οποία προκαλείται από χρήση της υδραζίνης. Μάλιστα προέκυψε ότι όσο μεγαλύτερη είναι η θερμοκρασία της χρησιμοποιούμενης υδραζίνης τόσο μεγαλύτερη είναι η κινητική των μεταβολών που επάγονται στις κρυσταλλογραφικές παραμέτρους του βιοαπατίτη. Αναμιγνύοντας καθορισμένες ποσότητες βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνου, παρασκευάστηκαν πρότυπα μίγματα που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την κατασκευή ευθειών αναφοράς, για τον προσδιορισμό της σύστασης του οστού ως προς αυτά τα συστατικά. Από τα φάσματα Raman του οστού επιλέχθηκε η ν1 δόνηση των ΡΟ43- του βιοαπατίτη που εμφανίζεται ως μια κορυφή στα 960 cm-1 ως δείκτης της ποσότητάς του ενώ για το κολλαγόνο δοκιμάστηκαν δύο κορυφές, μια στα 1667 cm-1 που ανήκει στη δόνηση του αμιδίου Ι και άλλη μια στα 2941 cm-1 που αποδίδεται στην C-H2 δόνηση. Κατά την ανάλυση που ακολούθησε, χρησιμοποιήθηκαν τόσο τα ύψη όσο και τα εμβαδά κάτω από τις αντίστοιχες κορυφές. Οι λόγοι εντάσεων (εκφραζόμενές από τα ύψη ή τα εμβαδά των κορυφών) των δονήσεων 960 cm-1/1667 cm-1 και 960 cm-1/2941 cm-1 είναι ανάλογοι του λόγου περιεκτικοτήτων σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο. Προέκυψαν επομένως τέσσερεις ευθείες αναφοράς. Από αξιολόγηση των συγκεκριμένων ευθειών αναφοράς προέκυψε ότι μεγαλύτερη ακρίβεια στον υπολογισμό του λόγου περιεκτικοτήτων βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνου παρουσιάζει αυτή που χρησιμοποιεί το λόγο υψών των κορυφών 960 cm-1/1667 cm-1. Επιπλέον, επιχειρήθηκε η ανάπτυξη ενός νέου μοντέλου βαθμονόμησης με τη χρήση χημειομετρικών μεθόδων και πιο συγκεκριμένα εφαρμόζοντας τον αλγόριθμο PLS, ο οποίος έχει εφαρμοστεί με σημαντική επιτυχία τα τελευταία χρόνια στην ανάλυση φασματοσκοπικών δεδομένων. Επειδή για την ανάπτυξη του νέου μοντέλου χρησιμοποιήθηκε μια μεγάλη περιοχή του φάσματος (από 366 cm-1 ως 1800 cm-1) και όχι μεμονωμένες δονήσεις, αναμένετο μεγαλύτερη ακρίβεια στον υπολογισμό της σύστασης των αγνώστων δειγμάτων. Από τους διάφορους τρόπους κατασκευής μοντέλων ποσοτικής ανάλυσης βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνου που αναπτύχθηκαν, αυτό που επέδειξε τα καλύτερα χαρακτηριστικά ήταν εκείνο που τα πειραματικά δεδομένα, πριν την επεξεργασία τους με τον αλγόριθμο PLS, υποβλήθηκαν στον SNV (Standard Normal Variate) μετασχηματισμό. Μετά την επιλογή των βέλτιστων για κάθε μέθοδο μοντέλων, ακολούθησε η αξιολόγησή τους με άλλες τεχνικές. Αρχικά, ποσοτικοποιήθηκε η περιεκτικότητά σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο μεγάλου αριθμού δοκιμίων οστών, με τις παραπάνω μεθόδους που βασίζονται στη φασματοσκοπία Raman. Ακολούθως, τα ίδια οστά αναλύθηκαν με τις τεχνικές της φασματομετρίας ατομικής απορρόφησης (AAS) και της θερμοσταθμικής ανάλυσης (TGA) ως προς την περιεκτικότητά τους σε ανόργανη και οργανική φάση. Σύγκριση των αποτελεσμάτων από αυτές τις τεχνικές με τα αντίστοιχα που προέκυψαν από την ανάλυση με φασματοσκοπία Raman, κατέδειξαν μειωμένη ικανότητα πρόβλεψης της περιεκτικότητας σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο και για τα δύο μοντέλα που είχαν αναπτυχθεί με βάση τη φασματοσκοπία Raman. Θεωρώντας ως ένα από τους λόγους αποτυχίας των παραπάνω μοντέλων ποσοτικής ανάλυσης την επιλογή της δόνησης του αμιδίου Ι στα 1667 cm-1 ως δείκτη της ποσότητας του κολλαγόνου, επιχειρήθηκε η κατασκευή ενός νέου μοντέλου ποσοτικής ανάλυσης, με την επιλογή διαφορετικών δονήσεων για την ποσοτικοποίηση του κολλαγόνου. Οι κορυφές που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ήταν αυτές στα 855 και 878 cm-1 οι οποίες ανήκουν σε δονήσεις των αμινοξέων προλίνη και υδροξυπρολίνη αντίστοιχα ενώ, για το βιοαπατίτη χρησιμοποιήθηκε και η κορυφή στα 960 cm-1. Και πάλι αναπτύχθηκαν μοντέλα λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τα ύψη και τα εμβαδά των παραπάνω κορυφών. Τελικά, προέκυψε ότι το βέλτιστο μοντέλο ήταν αυτό στο οποίο ως δείκτης της ποσότητας του κολλαγόνου χρησιμοποιήθηκε το άθροισμα των υψών των κορυφών στα 855 και 878 cm-1. Αξιολόγηση του συγκεκριμένου μοντέλου μέσω της σύγκρισης με τα αποτελέσματα που εξήχθησαν από τις ποσοτικές αναλύσεις με την ατομική απορρόφηση και τη θερμοσταθμική ανάλυση, κατέδειξε ιδιαίτερα ικανοποιητική σύγκλιση των τιμών περιεκτικότητας σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο από τις τρεις τεχνικές. Ως εκ’ τούτου, κατέστη δυνατή η δημιουργία ενός μοντέλου ακριβούς πρόβλεψης της σύστασης των οστών ως προς την ανόργανη και την οργανική φάση. Η εξίσωση της καμπύλης αναφοράς που προτείνεται για το σκοπό αυτό είναι η: όπου: Ηi είναι το ύψος της κορυφής του φάσματος Raman στον κυματάριθμο i και ΧΒ, ΧC οι % κ.β. περιεκτικότητες των οστών σε βιοαπατίτη και κολλαγόνο αντίστοιχα / Bone is a composite material characterized by a complicated hierarchical structure. It consists of three phases: inorganic, organic and aqueous. The inorganic is the dominant part accounting 60-65% w/w of bone and is a chemical and structural analogue of the mineral hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]. It is exactly for this reason that it is called bioapatite or biological apatite. The organic part constitutes about 30% of the weight of bone and its principal component is collagen (type I), which accounts for more than 90% of the weight of the organic phase. Non-collagenous proteins, lipids, cells and other organic substances are also included in the organic part of bone. The remaining 5-10% w/w of bone is water. The composition of bone and particularly the concentrations of bioapatite and collagen (which together exceed 95% w/w of dry bone) play a crucial role in its mechanical properties, including resistance to fracture, stiffness and elasticity. These properties relate to various pathological situations of bone which may cause fractures like osteoporosis –the most frequent metabolic bone disease– osteomalacia, osteogenesis imperfecta and others. For the diagnosis of the above diseases and especially of osteoporosis, measurements of BMD (Bone Mineral Density) is the gold standard. However, nowadays it is a common belief that BMD alone cannot reliably predict the risk of bone fracture. For this reason, a new approach is followed according to which the study of factors that influence the mechanical properties of bone is suggested for diagnostic purposes. Inarguably, the composition of bone appears to be a key factor for the evaluation of risk fracture. Despite the fact that composition of bone has been determined by various analytical techniques, the use of Raman spectroscopy (RS) for this purpose, has been inadequately exploited. The simultaneous analysis of inorganic and organic phase, the minimal or even none requirements for sample preparation and the promising ongoing efforts for the in vivo analysis of tissues, rendered this technique a powerful tool for the study of bones. Taking into account the important advantages of RS and the role of bone composition as a diagnostic parameter, it was attempted to develop a method, based on RS, of quantitative analysis of the composition of bioapatite and collagen in bone. A large number of bovine bone specimens (cortical and trabecular) was collected. Lipids, marrow and the non-collagenous proteins were removed by chemical methods. Some of the specimens were treated with EDTA solutions for the separation of collagen. A second batch of bone specimens was subjected to the removal of organic phase by hydrazine. Afterwards, the effect of chemical purification and of hydrazine treatment on the crystal structure of bioapatite was investigated. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) measurements revealed that although chemical purification does not have any significant effect, hydrazine treatment induces noteworthy changes of the crystal size and crystallinity of the mineral phase. Further XRD measurements and investigation of bone specimens with infrared spectroscopy unveiled that the observed changes were temperature depended and were due to the removal of CO32- and HPO42- ions from the crystal lattice of bioapatite, caused by hydrazine. A series of standard mixtures was prepared by mixing carefully weighted amounts of the purified bone components and the corresponding calibration curves were constructed. These calibration lines could be used for the quantitative analysis of bone specimens with respect to its content in bioapatite and collagen. The peak at 960 cm-1 of the Raman spectrum of bone was selected as marker of bioapatite (ν1 vibration of ΡΟ43-¬). For collagen two peaks were tested, at 1667 cm-1 (vibration of amide I) and at 2941 cm-1 (vibration of C-H2). For these two peaks both, the height and the integrated areas were used for the construction of the respective calibration curves. Height and area ratios of 960 cm-1/1667 cm-1 and 960 cm-1/2941 cm-1 peaks are proportional to the ratio of mass fraction of bioapatite to collagen. For the models developed, the most accurate was proved to be this one that used the height ratio of 960 cm-1/1667 cm-1 peaks. For comparison reasons, new models were developed based on chemometrics and in particular by using the PLS algorithm. PLS has been proved a powerful method for the analysis of multivariate problems and during the last years there is a growing number of applications in spectroscopy. A broad region of the Raman spectrum was used from 366 cm-1 to 1800 cm-1 and various spectral filters were tested. The best results were obtained for the SNV spectral filter. Following the selection of the optimum model for each of the two different methods of calibration, they were evaluated with the results from other analytical techniques. Various bone specimens were quantified for bioapatite and collagen with the implementation of the developed models and their results were compared with the corresponding results of two other analytical techniques, Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Although analytical results showed good agreement between AAS and TGA, the consensus of the results obtained by RS and that of AAS and TGA was poor. This indicates that the developed methods based on RS were inappropriate. A possible reason for the failure of the above models, which based on RS, could be the selection of amide I vibration for the quantification of collagen. Thus, additional models were constructed using different peaks as collagen markers. The peaks at 855 and 878 cm-1 were selected, which are attributed to vibrations of the amino acids proline and hydroxyproline, respectively. For bioapatite the peak at 960 cm-1 was used. The quantitative analysis was developed using heights and integrated areas of the selected peaks. Comparison between the models showed that the best results were obtained by the model that takes into account the sum of the heights at 855 cm-1 and 878 cm-1. Comparison of this model with the results obtained from AAS and TGA showed excellent agreement with respect to the content of bone specimens in bioapatite and collagen. The calibration equation derived for this model is: where: Hi is the height of the peak at the i wavenumber of the Raman spectrum and ΧΒ, ΧC are the % mass content of bioapatite and collagen in the bone specimens respectively

Neste trabalho foram preparados materiais constituídos por Al2O3 e Nb2O5, na forma de grãos esferoidais para serem usados como suporte de catalisadores aplicados à propulsão. Os suportes foram preparados por quatro diferentes métodos: impregnação úmida do óxido de alumínio moldado por uma solução alcoólica de cloreto de nióbio (NbCl5); impregnação seca do óxido de alumínio por uma solução alcoólica de NbCl5; co-precipitação dos precursores de óxido de alumínio e óxido de nióbio; e mistura física dos precursores desses óxidos previamente autoclavados separadamente. Entre esses métodos, os suportes que apresentaram melhores características para aplicação em propulsão a monopropelente hidrazina (N2H4) foram aqueles preparados por mistura física, contendo 20% m/m de óxido de nióbio (Su20MF) e por impregnações secas sucessivas, contendo 10% m/m de óxido de nióbio (Su10IS). A adição do óxido de nióbio ao óxido de alumínio resultou em acentuado aumento da resistência mecânica à compressão, mas não causou variação significativa do número e força dos sítios ácidos de Lewis, em função dos tratamentos de calcinação efetuados a 873 K por 5 horas. Todos os suportes foram impregnados com solução de H2IrCl6 e após tratamentos de redução sob H2, obteve-se catalisadores de irídio suportados, com elevados teores metálicos, CAT-20Ir, contendo aproximadamente 20% m/m de Ir disperso na superfície do suporte Su10IS, e CAT-27Ir, contendo aproximadamente 27% m/m de Ir disperso na superfície do suporte Su20MF. Caracterizações por quimissorção de H2 e por MET/EDS mostraram que o irídio fixou-se quase que exclusivamente sobre o óxido de alumínio, gerando partículas metálicas com diâmetros médios tanto maiores quanto menores as áreas superficiais expostas desse óxido. Testes efetuados em bancada com as reações de decomposição de hidrazina e de amônia revelaram que a reação com hidrazina ocorre de forma completa em temperaturas acima de 393 K, gerando exclusivamente amônia e nitrogênio, enquanto que a decomposição da amônia inicia-se em temperaturas superiores e diferenciadas, dependendo do catalisador. Durante a reação da hidrazina, a reação de decomposição da amônia formada, produzindo hidrogênio foi acompanhada, sendo tanto menor quanto maior o diâmetro médio das partículas de irídio, sendo que a seletividade ao hidrogênio mostrou ser uma função linear do diâmetro médio, ao menos entre 24 Å e 40 Å. Esse comportamento se deve ao fato de que a decomposição da amônia é uma reação sensível à estrutura da fase ativa destes catalisadores. Já os testes efetuados em propulsores de 5 N de empuxo no Banco de Teste com Simulação de Altitude (BTSA), evidenciaram um aumento da temperatura, da pressão de câmara e também da força de empuxo, devido à menor decomposição da amônia e maiores tempos para o início da decomposição da hidrazina, efeito este relacionado ao número específico de sítios ativos presentes nas superfícies dos catalisadores. / In this work were prepared supports consisting of Al2O3 and Nb2O5, in the form of spheroidal grains by four different methods: wet impregnation of the aluminum oxide molded an alcoholic solution of niobium chloride (NbCl5); dry impregnation of aluminum oxide in an alcoholic solution of NbCl5; co-precipitation of the precursor of aluminum oxide and niobium oxide; and physical mixing of precursors of these oxides previously autoclaved separately. Among these methods, the supports that showed the best characteristics for application in propulsion monopropellant hydrazine were those prepared by physical mixture containing 20 wt % niobium oxide (Su20MF) and successive dry impregnations, containing 10 wt % niobium oxide (Su10IS).The addition of niobium oxide in aluminum oxide resulted in a significant increase in compressive strength of these selected supports, but caused no significant change in the number and strength of Lewis acid site, which was attributed to the calcination treatment carried out at 873 K by 5 hours. These supports were impregnated with H2IrCl6 solution and after reduction treatment under H2, were obtained supported iridium catalysts with high metal contents, named CAT-20Ir containing approximately 20 wt % of Ir dispersed on the support Su10IS and CAT-27Ir containing approximately 27 wt % of Ir Su20MF dispersed on the support. Characterization by chemisorption of H2 and by TEM/EDS showed that the iridium was anchored almost exclusively on aluminum oxide, generating metal particles with average diameters greater. Tests carried out in laboratory with decomposition of hydrazine and ammonia revealed that the reaction with hydrazine is completely in temperatures above 393 K, generating only ammonia and nitrogen, while the decomposition of ammonia, the reaction initiation above different temperatures depending on the catalyst. During decomposition hydrazine another accompanied reaction was the decomposition of ammonia generated, producing hydrogen. The selectivity to hydrogen showed to be a linear function of the mean diameter particle of iridium, least between 24 Å and 40 Å , these results were attributed to the fact that the decomposition of ammonia is a sensitive reaction to the structure of the active phase of these catalysts. Tests carried out at the Altitude Simulation Test Facility (BTSA/INPE) showed the following effects caused by Nb2O5 addition to iridium catalyst supports: increase of temperature, chamber pressure and thrust power, due to a smaller ammonia decomposition; and increase of time for hydrazine decomposition when there is an excessive reduction of the specific number of active sites.

Over the past recent years, β-aminocarbonyls have been of great interest to medicinal chemists. As a practical method to obtain these moieties, alkene aminocarbonylation, accounting for the formation of a C-N and a C-C bond, has been the subject of limited research efforts (very specific intramolecular metal-catalyzed variants have been reported). Direct aminocarbonylation of alkenes constitutes a challenging and an important potential innovation in the synthesis of β-aminocarbonyls such as β-amino acids. The research efforts described in the present thesis have been primarily directed towards the development of concerted pathways for the amination of alkenes using hydrazine derivatives as bifunctional reagents. Building on our previous report on the reactivity of hydrazides, progress on the aminocarbonylation of alkenes along with the synthetic scope of this reactivity are herein provided. Therefore, the first part of the present thesis (Chapter 2) focuses primarily on the development of thermolytic conditions for the intramolecular aminocarbonylation of alkenes using amino-isocyanates. Alongside, development of imino-isocyanates have provided complementary synthetic tools for aminocarbonylation. The second part (Chapter 3) describes the work accomplished towards intermolecular aminocarbonylation of alkenes and the synthesis of complex azomethine imine products (Chapter 3). Finally, the last part of the discussion (Chapter 4) will be on the development of new hydrazide reagents for the intramolecular Cope-type hydroamination of alkenes. In doing so, description of the synthetic utility of amino-isocyanates as amphoteric reagents for cascade reactions and heterocyclic synthesis will be provided.

Alpha-ketoglutaric acid (AKGA) is an organic acid important for the metabolism of essential amino acids as well as for the transfer of cellular energy. It is a precursor of glutamic acid which is produced by the human body during the Krebs Cycle. AKGA has a specific industrial interest as it can be taken as a dietary supplement and is also widely used as a building block in chemical synthesis. Collectively termed as hydrazine (HZs), hydrazine (HZ) and monomethylhydrazine (MMH) are hypergolic fuels that do not need an ignition source to burn. Because of the particular HZs' characteristics the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and the US Air Force at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) consistently use HZ and MMH as hypergolic propellants. These propellants are highly reactive and toxic, and have carcinogenic properties. The handling, transport, and disposal of HZ waste are strictly regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) to protect human health and the environment. Significant quantities of wastewater containing residuals of HZ and MMH are generated at KSC and CCAFS that are subsequently disposed off-site as hazardous waste. This hazardous waste is shipped for disposal over public highways, which presents a potential threat to the public and the environment in the event of an accidental discharge in transit. NASA became aware of research done using AKGA to neutralize HZ waste. This research indicated that AKGA transformed HZ in an irreversible reaction potentially leading to the disposal of the hypergols via the wastewater treatment facility located at CCAFS eliminating the need to transport most of the HZ waste off-site. New Mexico Highlands University (NMHU) has researched this transformation of HZ by reaction with AKGA to form stabilized pyridazine derivatives. NMHU's research suggests that the treatment of HZ and MMH using AKGA is an irreversible reaction; once the reaction takes place, HZ and/or MMH cannot re-form from the byproducts obtained. However, further knowledge relating to the ultimate end products of the reaction, and their effects on human health and the environment, must still be addressed. The known byproduct of the AKGA/HZ neutralization reaction is 6-oxo-1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-pyridazine-3-carboxylic acid (PCA), and the byproduct of the AKGA/MMH reaction is 1-methyl-6-oxo-4,5-dihydro-pyridazine-3-carboxylic acid (mPCA). This research addressed several primary areas of interest to further the potential use of AKGA for HZ and MMH neutralization: 1) isolation of the end-product of the MMH-AKGA degradation process, 1-methyl-6-oxo-4,5-dihydro-pyridazine-3-carboxylic acid (mPCA), and determination of several physical properties of this substance, 2) evaluation of the kinetics of the reaction of AKGA with HZ or MMH, 3) verification of the chemical mechanism for the reaction of the individual hypergols with AKGA, 4) determination of whether the addition of a silicone-based antifoaming agent (AF), citric acid (CA) and/or isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to the AKGA and HZ or MMH solution interferes with the degradation reaction, 4) application of laboratory bench scale experiments in field samples, and 5) determination of the reaction enthalpy of these reactions.