Algas são seres adaptados às constantes e bruscas mudanças abióticas característica do ambiente marinho, causadoras de estresse e responsáveis por alterações fisiológicas capazes de danificar funções biológicas básicas. O excesso de PAR pode causar estresse oxidativo em algas marinhas resultando na oxidação de pigmentos e proteínas, comprometendo o crescimento e conduzindo a alterações que podem levar à morte. Esse estresse oxidativo conduz ao acúmulo de ROS e NO que de forma direta ou indireta prejudicam o andamento metabólico do organismo. Para mitigar e controlar os efeitos danosos desses radicais, o organismo conta com diversas defesas antioxidativas, como aumento de compostos fenólicos, degradação de pigmentos fotossintetizantes, disponibilização de polissacarídeos e espessamento da parede e ativação de sistemas enzimáticos e não enzimáticos antioxidativos. Deste modo, com o objetivo de entender o funcionamento da fisiologia de Gracilariopsis tenuifrons em resposta a intensa irradiância foram avaliados teor de pigmentos fotossintetizantes, proteínas solúveis totais, carbono, hidrogênio e nitrogênio tissulares, taxa de crescimento, quantidade de substâncias fenólicas totais, atividade antioxidante total e peroxidação lipídica e produção de ROS e NO. Assim sendo, ápices de 3 cm da macroalga vermelha Gp.tenuifrons foram expostos a dois regimes de irradiância (60 μmol fótons.m-2.s-1 e 600 μmol fótons.m-2.s-1) durante uma semana e coletadas durante o dia e a noite. O excesso de irradiância provocou respostas de estresse oxidativo, que resultaram em significativa redução de pigmentos fotossintetizantes, proteínas solúveis e nitrogênio tissular, elevação do carbono e hidrogênio tissulares, das substâncias fenólicas, da atividade antioxidante total e da quantidade de NO. Gracilariopsis tenuifrons demonsmostrou efetiva ativação de diversos sistemas antioxidativos ao estímulo de elevada irradiância. Esta indução de atividade antioxidante pode ser melhor explorada em aplicações para a indústria alimentícia, medica, farmacêutica e cosmética. Também foram relacionados protocolos metodológicos e resultados inovadores em relação à formação de NO em condições de estresse, que poderão auxiliar abordagens fisiológicas no Laboratório de Algas Marinhas \"Édison José de Paula\" e outros grupos de pesquisa nacionais e internacionais / Algae are organisms adapted to constant and abrupt abiotic changes characteristic of marine environment, that cause stress and are responsible for physiological alterations able to damage basic biological functions. The intense PAR can produces oxidative stress on seaweed, resulting in oxidation of pigments and proteins, affecting the growth and driven to alterations that can conduce to cell death. This oxidative stress leads ROS and NO accumulation that directly or indirectly prejudice the metabolic fitness of the organism. To mitigate and control the deleterious effect of these radicals, the organism has diverse antioxidative defenses, as to increase phenolic compounds, degradation of photosynthetic pigments, providing polysaccharides and wall thickness and activation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidative systems. Thus, aiming to understand the physiological responses of Gracilariopsis tenuifrons to intense irradiance were evaluated levels of photosynthetic pigments, proteins, tissular carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, growth rate, amount of total phenolic compounds, total antioxidant activity and lipid peroxidation, and ROS and NO production. Therefore, apices of 3 cm from the red seaweed Gp. Tenuifrons were exposed to 60 μmol photons.m-2.s-1 and 600 μmol photons.m-2.s-1 for one week and sampling during the day and night. The excess of irradiance promoted oxidative stress responses, observing significant reduction of pigments, soluble proteins and tissular nitrogen, and elevation of tissular carbon and hydrogen, phenolic compounds, total antioxidant activity and quantity of NO. Gracilariopsis tenuifrons showed effective activation of diverse antioxidant systems stimulated by high light. This antioxidant induction should be better explored in applications for food, medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Moreover this study shows innovative results related to NO production under stress condition and methodological protocols will be of great help for physiological approaches in the Laboratory of Marine Algae \"Édison José de Paula\" and for other national and international research groups

The vegetation in the riparian zone of a watercourse in fluences the water state with multiple factors, first via direct substance discharge and secondly via shadow casting on the water surface. Shadowing directly regulates the solar radiant energy arriving at the water surface. Solar radiation input to aquatic environments is the most important abiotic factor for aquatic flora and fauna habitat development. Thus, to adequately asses the ecological state of water courses it is necessary to quantify the solar surface irradiance E (W=m2) arriving on the water surface. When estimating the solar surface irradiance the complex coherence between incoming solar radiation, atmospheric in uences, and spatial-temporal geometries need to be investigated. This work established a work flow to compute the solar surface irradiance for water bodies using different remote sensing data. The work flow was tested on regional level for a section of the river Freiberger Mulde, Saxony, for the year 2016. Product of the calculations is a map visualising the annual sum of the solar surface irradiance (kWh=m2) arriving on the Freiberger Mulde water surface and the surrounding terrain. Based on these information bio-hydrological issues can be further examinated.

Optical sensors are among the sensors that are often used for distance measurements. An optical distance sensor is basically made of a light emitter (Tx) such as a light emitting diode (LED), a light receiver (Rx) such as a photosensitive transistor, and a circuit supporting the operation of the Tx and Rx. The distance measurement is made using the reflection technique in which the Tx emits a light to a target and the Rx receives the reflected light from the target. When designing such a sensor, the factors that affect the performance of measurements need to be taken into account. Among them are light intensity and wavelength. The purpose of this thesis project is to investigate and evaluate the optical sensors, in application towards distance measurement. To this purpose, three pairs of LEDs and phototransistors are selected which three distance sensors are made of. The lights from three LEDs have the wavelengths of 830, 880, and 940 nm, respectively, which are all in the infrared (IR) spectrum.  A circuit was made for each sensor in order to read the measurements and then calculate the distances, and then tested in a testbench. The testbench has a metal plate used as a measurement target which can be moved up and down by a motor. Each of the circuits was placed on the testbench’s base, and a microcontroller (Arduino Uno R3) was used to read the measurement of voltage (proportional to the light intensity) from the Rx as the distance to the target changes up to one meter. The measurement data is then presented on a graphical interface to analyse the relationship of light intensity with distance. Curve fitting and optimization techniques are applied to the data to construct a smooth function that approximately fits the data. An operating range where the distance can be reliably determined is determined for each unit. The circuit design and technique was proven to work for operating ranges up to one meter. A limited moving range of the testbench does not allow for experiments at distances higher than one meter and the microcontroller is ill fit for measuring low voltages, but these can be addressed by improving the measuring environment without changing the underlying technique. The test results of the distance measurement reveal that the three sensors give similar distance estimations between different configurations over an operating range of up to 0.9 meters. Future work should consider improving the circuit design to reduce power ripple and increasing operating range.

Net photosynthesis, dark respiration, chlorophyll concentrations and growth were determined for Rumex patientia L. exposed to UV-B radiation corresponding to reduced atmospheric ozone concentrations. The hypothesis of whether reciprocity is maintained in the response of R. patientia to polychromatic UV-B radiation was tested. On the basis of the relationships derived from these studies, a simulation model was developed for the prediction of photosynthesis and growth of R. patientia exposed to UV-B radiation corresponding to any atmospheric ozone reduction. Photosynthetic rates were found to be depressed after two hours exposure to UV-B irradiance simulating a 0.18 atm•cm ozone column when the sun is at 30° from the zenith. During this initial exposure period, partial stomatal closure was implicated in the suppression of photosynthesis. However, after one day exposure, substantial increases in photosynthetic resistances apart from stomatal diffusion resistance occurred in the UV-irradiated plants and no differences in stomatal diffusion resistance were apparent between UV-irradiated and control plants. Dark respiration rates were slightly higher in those plants exposed to UV radiation. Leaf expansion of R. patientia was substantially repressed but only during the initial few days of exposure. Thereafter, leaf expansion was similar in the UV-irradiated and control plants. A reduction in total plant dry weight and leaf area of approximately 50 percent occurred after 22 days treatment while chlorophyll concentrations remained unaltered. Time of leaf initiation was shawm to be delayed in those plants exposed to UV-B radiation. Leaf longevity was decreased with increased UV radiation but accelerated whole-plant senescence and death was not observed. Photosynthetic rates determined through the ontogeny of the third leaf of R. patientia exposed to four levels of UV irradiance were found to be depressed as a function of the accumulated biologically effective UV irradiation. Thus, reciprocity was demonstrated between 6350 and 3175 J biologically effective UV irradiation. Results of the simultion model showed that under reduced atmospheric ozone concentrations, suppression of photosynthesis and leaf growth would be more severe during mid-sunnner (i . e. June) than would occur during the March to early May period, This results from smaller solar angles from the zenith and lower prevailing ozone concentrations prevalent during June. A validation test of the model was made with photosynthetic data obtained during a field study with R. patientia exposed to UV-B radiation corresponding to a 38 percent atmospheric ozone reduction (0.18 atm•cm when the sun was at 30° from the zenith). This validation test showed a reasonable correspondence between the measured and predicted photosynthetic rates. R. patientia was selected as the test species for this study because (1) it is reasonably sensitive to UV radiation as determined in preliminary studies evaluating approximately 20 native and agricultural plant species, (2) it is normally exposed to full sunlight in · its natural habitat, and (3) individual leaves are relatively long - lived (about 60 days) and are not normally shaded by other leaves of the same plant. Although this species probably represents one of the more sensitive plants to UV radiation, it would be this group of sensitive plants that would be initially affected under conditions of reduced atmospheric ozone. If more resistant plants with long-lived plant parts also accumulate UV radiation damage as was shown to occur in R. patientia, over sufficient periods of time even these species might be significantly impacted under conditions of reduced atmospheric ozone.

<p>Climate change is recognized as one of the most significant challenge of the 21st century. Anthropogenic activities have led to a substantial increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) since the Industrial Revolution, with the energy sector being one the biggest contributors globally. The energy sector is now facing unique challenges not only due to decarbonization goals but also due to increased risks of climate extremes under climate change. </p><p>This dissertation focuses on leveraging machine learning, specifically utilizing unstructured data such as images, to address many of the unprecedented challenges faced by the energy systems. The dissertation begins (Chapter 1) by providing an overview of the risks posed by climate change to modern energy systems. It then explains how machine learning applications can help with addressing these risks. By harnessing the power of machine learning and unstructured data, this research aims to contribute to the development of more resilient and sustainable energy systems, as described briefly below. </p><p>Accurate forecasting of generation is essential for mitigating the risks associated with the increased penetration of intermittent and non-dispatchable variable renewable energy (VRE). In Chapters 2 and 3, deep learning techniques are proposed to predict solar irradiance, a crucial factor in solar energy generation, in order to address the uncertainty inherent in solar energy. Specifically, Chapter 2 introduces a cost-efficient fully exogenous solar irradiance forecasting model that effectively incorporates atmospheric cloud dynamics using satellite imagery. Building upon the work of Chapter 2, Chapter 3 extends the model to a fully probabilistic framework that not only forecasts the future point value of irradiance but also quantifies the uncertainty of the prediction. This is particularly important in the context of energy systems, as it relates to high-risk decision making.</p><p>While the energy system is a major contributor to GHG emissions, it is also vulnerable to climate change risks. Given the essential role of energy systems infrastructure in modern society, ensuring reliable and sustainable operations is of utmost importance. However, our understanding of reliability analysis in electricity transmission networks is limited due to the lack of access to large-scale transmission network topology datasets. Previous research has mostly relied on proxy or synthetic datasets. Chapter 4 addresses this research gap by proposing a novel deep learning-based object detection method that utilizes satellite images to construct a comprehensive large-scale transmission network dataset.</p>

The dependence of equatorial ionosphere on solar irradiances and geomagnetic activity are studied in this dissertation using signal processing techniques. The statistical time series, digital signal processing and wavelet methods are applied to study the ionospheric variations. The ionospheric data used are the Total Electron Content (TEC) and the critical frequency of the F2 layer (foF2). Solar irradiance data are from recent satellites, the Student Nitric Oxide Explorer (SNOE) satellite and the Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics (TIMED) satellite. The Disturbance Storm-Time (Dst) index is used as a proxy of geomagnetic activity in the equatorial region. The results are summarized as follows. (1) In the short-term variations ≤ 27-days, the previous three days solar irradiances have significant correlation with the present day ionospheric data using TEC, which may contribute 18% of the total variations in the TEC. The 3-day delay between solar irradiances and TEC suggests the effects of neutral densities on the ionosphere. The correlations between solar irradiances and TEC are significantly higher than those using the F10.7 flux, a conventional proxy for short wavelength band of solar irradiances. (2) For variations ≤ 27 days, solar soft X-rays show similar or higher correlations with the ionosphere electron densities than the Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV). The correlations between solar irradiances and foF2 decrease from morning (0.5) to the afternoon (0.1). (3) Geomagnetic activity plays an important role in the ionosphere in short-term variations ≤ 10 days. The average correlation between TEC and Dst is 0.4 at 2-3, 3-5, 5-9 and 9-11 day scales, which is higher than those between foF2 and Dst. The correlations between TEC and Dst increase from morning to afternoon. The moderate/quiet geomagnetic activity plays a distinct role in these short-term variations of the ionosphere (~0.3 correlation).

The annual gain of stationary solar thermal collectors can be increased by non-focusing reflectors. Such concentrators make use of diffuse irradiance. A collector’s incidence angle modifier for diffuse (diffuse-IAM) accounts for this utilization. The diffuse irra-diance varies over the collector hemisphere, which dynamically influences the diffuse-IAM. This is not considered by state-of-the-art collector models. They simply calculate with one constant IAM value for isotropic diffuse irradiance from sky and ground. This work is based on the development of a stationary, double-covered process heat flat-plate collector with a one-sided, segmented booster reflector (RefleC). This reflector approximates one branch of a compound parabolic concentrator (CPC). Optical meas-urement results of the collector components as well as raytracing results of different variants are given. The thermal and optical characterization of test samples up to 190 °C in an outdoor laboratory as well as the validation of the raytracing are discussed. A collector simulation model with varying diffuse-IAM is described. Therein, ground reflected and sky diffuse irradiance are treated separately. Sky diffuse is weighted with an anisotropic IAM, which is re-calculated in every time step. This is realized by gener-ating an anisotropic sky radiance distribution with the model of Brunger and Hooper, and by weighting the irradiance from distinct sky elements with their raytraced beam-IAM values. According to the simulations, the RefleC booster increases the annual out-put of the double-covered flat-plate in Würzburg, Germany, by 87 % at a constant inlet temperature of 120 °C and by 20 % at 40 °C. Variations of the sky diffuse-IAM of up to 25 % during one day are found. A constant, isotropic diffuse-IAM would have under-valued the gains from the booster by 40 % at 40 °C and by 20 % at 120 °C. The results indicate that the gain of all non-focusing solar collectors is undervalued when constant, isotropic diffuse-IAMs calculated from raytracing or steady-state test data are used. Process heat generation with RefleC is demonstrated in a monitored pilot plant at work-ing temperatures of up to 130 °C. The measured annual system utilization ratio is 35 %. Comparing the gains at all inlet temperatures above 80 °C, the booster increases the an-nual output of the double-covered flat-plates by 78 %. Taking all inlet temperatures, the total annual gains of RefleC are 39 % above that of the flat-plates without reflectors. A qualitative comparison of the new simulation model results to the laboratory results and monitoring data shows good agreement. It is shown that the accuracy of existing collector models can be increased with low effort by calculating separate isotropic IAMs for diffuse sky and ground reflected irradiance. The highest relevance of this work is seen for stationary collectors with very distinctive radiation acceptance.

Cette thèse s’intéresse à la modélisation magnétohydrodynamique des écoulements de fluides conducteurs d’électricité multi-échelles en mettant l’emphase sur deux applications particulières de la physique solaire: la modélisation des mécanismes des variations de l’irradiance via la simulation de la dynamo globale et la reconnexion magnétique. Les variations de l’irradiance sur les périodes des jours, des mois et du cycle solaire de 11 ans sont très bien expliquées par le passage des régions actives à la surface du Soleil. Cependant, l’origine ultime des variations se déroulant sur les périodes décadales et multi-décadales demeure un sujet controversé. En particulier, une certaine école de pensée affirme qu’une partie de ces variations à long-terme doit provenir d’une modulation de la structure thermodynamique globale de l’étoile, et que les seuls effets de surface sont incapables d’expliquer la totalité des fluctuations. Nous présentons une simulation globale de la convection solaire produisant un cycle magnétique similaire en plusieurs aspects à celui du Soleil, dans laquelle le flux thermique convectif varie en phase avec l’ ́energie magnétique. La corrélation positive entre le flux convectif et l’énergie magnétique supporte donc l’idée qu’une modulation de la structure thermodynamique puisse contribuer aux variations à long-terme de l’irradiance. Nous analysons cette simulation dans le but d’identifier le mécanisme physique responsable de la corrélation en question et pour prédire de potentiels effets observationnels résultant de la modulation structurelle. La reconnexion magnétique est au coeur du mécanisme de plusieurs phénomènes de la physique solaire dont les éruptions et les éjections de masse, et pourrait expliquer les températures extrêmes caractérisant la couronne. Une correction aux trajectoires du schéma semi-Lagrangien classique est présentée, qui est basée sur la solution à une équation aux dérivées partielles nonlinéaire du second ordre: l’équation de Monge-Ampère. Celle-ci prévient l’intersection des trajectoires et assure la stabilité numérique des simulations de reconnexion magnétique pour un cas de magnéto-fluide relaxant vers un état d’équilibre. / This thesis concentrates on magnetohydrodynamical modeling of multiscale conducting fluids with emphasis on two particular applications of solar physics: the modeling of solar irradiance mechanisms via the numerical simulation of the global dynamo and of magnetic reconnection. Irradiance variations on the time scales of days, months, and of the 11 yr solar cycle are very well described by changes in the surface coverage by active regions. However, the ultimate origin of the long-term decadal and multi-decadal variations is still a matter of debate. In particular, one school of thought argues that a global modulation of the solar thermodynamic structure by magnetic activity is required to account for part of the long-term variations, in addition to pure surface effects. We hereby present a global simulation of solar convection producing solar-like magnetic cycles, in which the convective heat flux varies in phase with magnetic energy. We analyze the simulation to uncover the physical mechanism causing the positive correlation and to predict potential observational signatures resulting from the flux modulation. Magnetic reconnection is central to many solar physics phenomena including flares and coronal mass ejections, and could also provide an explanation for the extreme temperatures (T ∼ 106K) that charaterize the coronna. A trajectory correction to the classical semi-Lagrangian scheme is presented, which is based on the solution to a second-order nonlinear partial differential equation: the Monge-Amp`ere equation. Using the correction prevents the intersection of fluid trajectories and assures the physical realizability of magnetic reconnection simulations for the case of a magneto- fluid relaxing toward an equilibrium state.

Parmi les îles de l’Indianocéanie, La Réunion présente une topographie complexe soumise à un climat tropical fortement variable. Sa localisation dans le sud-ouest de l’océan Indien lui octroie un potentiel solaire important. Concomitamment, son isolement géographique dirige le territoire vers l’autonomie énergétique, par la meilleure intégration des énergies renouvelables dans son mix énergétique. Le verrou de l’exploitation du gisement solaire local réside dans la forte intermittence de cette ressource qui est grandement tributaire de la couverture nuageuse. Ainsi, il est de première nécessité d’approfondir les connaissances du potentiel solaire local, autant en ce qui concerne sa variabilité temporelle que sa répartition spatiale. Les travaux de recherches ici menés s’axent autour de cet approfondissement nécessaire du gisement solaire local. La mesure in situ du rayonnement solaire global n’est pas équitablement répartie sur le département et ne permet donc pas d’établir une cartographie aussi équilibrée que celle offerte par les résolutions de l’imagerie satellitaire. Dans le cadre des travaux de recherches, nous exploitons le produit satellitaire SARAH-E (Solar surfAce RAdiation Heliosat – East) prodigué par le SAF Climat (CM SAF) d’Eumetsat. Les résolutions spatiales et temporelles de SARAH-E permettent d’étudier l’irradiance à la surface de La Réunion sur un total de 89 pixels et de 16 ans de données horaires (0,05°×0.05°, 1999-2015, excluant 2006). Grâce à ces données, nous articulons l’approfondissement de la connaissance du gisement solaire autour de deux méthodologies complémentaires. Dans une première étude, une cartographie du potentiel solaire moyen est établie en combinant ses deux composantes orbitales, soit : les cycles diurne et saisonnier. La complémentarité de cette considération nous permet d’extraire des zones cohérentes tant au niveau spatial que temporel, à l’image de la dynamique atmosphérique locale. En seconde partie, il sera ensuite question de quantifier et qualifier les perturbations possibles pouvant moduler le potentiel solaire moyen dans la journée. Cinq journées-types sont retenues et caractérisées selon leurs structures spatiales et temporalité associée. Par la suite, nous proposons un premier lien entre les perturbations solaires locales et certains processus atmosphériques de plus large échelle. Ainsi, nous estimons des modulations relatives selon l’oscillation de Madden-Julian, les talwegs tropicaux-tempérés et les cyclones. Finalement, nous décomposons la ressource solaire réunionnaise en (1) un potentiel moyen cyclique, selon une combinaison de la variabilité saisonnière à l’évolution diurne, et (2) des perturbations journalières types, présentant des liens avec les dynamiques atmosphériques à plus large échelle. / In the South-West Indian Ocean, La Réunion Island is located in a strong solar potential. However, its complex topography and tropical climate are obstacles to the best exploitation of renewable energies. Thus, the knowledge of the local solar potential has to be deepen, both on its temporal and spatial variabilities. The research here focuses on this deepening of the local solar deposit. Thus, the use of SARAH-E satellite product (Solar surfAce RAdiation Heliosat - East) allows us to study the irradiance of Reunion Island on 89 pixels and 16 years of hourly data. In a first study, the mean solar potential is mapped by combining its two orbital components: the diurnal and seasonal cycles. Their complementarity permits the extraction of coherent zones with the local atmospheric dynamic. In the second part, the daily perturbations modulating the mean solar potential are detailed in five typical days with specific spatial structures and temporality. We then propose a first link between local solar perturbations and the larger-scale atmospheric processes, namely the Madden-Julian oscillation, the Tropical-Temperate Troughs and Tropical Cyclones. Finally, La Réunion island solar resource is decomposed into (1) an mean cyclic potential, combining seasonal and diurnal evolutions, and (2) typical daily perturbations, with links to larger-scale atmospheric dynamics.

This work presents a dynamic model for utility-scale PV systems. The model is based on a centralized converter topology, which uses a voltage-sourced converter (VSC) to facilitate the exchange of energy between PV generators and the utility grid. The related control system regulates active and reactive power injected by the PV system, based on a current control strategy. Moreover, the model includes a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) scheme, implemented with the incremental conductance method. Dimensioning of the model is presented as well as simulation cases to validate its performance. Subsequently, the model was used to analyze the effect of variations in solar radiation on a test network with high penetration of photovoltaic generation. Results showed that without proper compensation of reactive power, variations in solar radiation can cause voltage fluctuations outside allowable limits. Thus, in order to mitigate these fluctuations, local control strategies were implemented to allow the exchange of reactive power between the solar farm and the utility grid. Simulations showed that the proposed strategies can mitigate voltage fluctuations at the point of common coupling, improving voltage regulation in the network. / Este trabalho apresenta um modelo dinâmico de sistemas fotovoltaicos de grande escala. O modelo é baseado em uma topologia de conversor centralizado, que usa um conversor de fonte de tensão (VSC) para facilitar a troca de energia entre os geradores fotovoltaicos e a rede elétrica. O sistema de controle relacionado regula a energia ativa e reativa injetada pelo sistema fotovoltaico, com base em uma estratégia de controle de corrente. Além disso, o modelo inclui um sistema de rastreamento de ponto de potência máxima (MPPT), implementado com o método da condutância incremental. O dimensionamento do modelo é apresentado, bem como vários casos de simulação para validar o seu desempenho. Posteriormente, o modelo foi utilizado para analisar o efeito das variações na radiação solar sobre uma rede de teste com uma elevada penetração de geração fotovoltaica. Os resultados mostraram que sem uma adequada compensação de energia reativa, as variações na radiação solar podem causar flutuações de tensão fora dos limites permitidos. Assim, a fim de mitigar estas flutuações, estratégias de controle local foram implementadas para permitir a troca de potência reativa entre os sistemas fotovoltaicos e a rede. As simulações mostraram que as estratégias propostas podem mitigar as flutuações de tensão no ponto de acoplamento comum, melhorando a regulação de tensão na rede.