Pour faire face aux contraintes économiques (demande de plus en plus importante pour de la personnalisation de masse, globalisation et réduction des coûts…), le développement de stratégies de production « Juste À Temps », ou « Lean Manufacturing » impose la réorganisation de l’entreprise sur les activités génératrices de valeur en suivant une logique de chaîne de valeur pour éviter tout gaspillage. Cette stratégie conduit de fait à un recentrage métier et une extension de la chaîne de valeur. L’entreprise est donc amenée à développer des stratégies de collaboration (Bare et Cox, 2008 ; Davis, 1987) et doit disposer d’un SI Lean (réponse au plus juste), agile pour réagir aux fluctuations et aléas, ouvert pour assurer un partenariat avec ses fournisseurs, ses clients et ses partenaires et, enfin, interopérable pour faciliter la communication entre les différents systèmes et concilier ces différentes facettes métiers. Or, le SI de l’entreprise est constitué d’une multiplicité de logiciels (l’ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), le MES (Manufacturing Execution System), le PLM (Product Life-cycle Management), le SCM (Supply Chain Management)…). Chaque système vise à répondre à un objectif donné pour une facette métier, et est développé selon des spécifications métier propres échappant le plus souvent à toute standardisation. Ceci engendre une redondance, une hétérogénéité et une augmentation du volume d’information, d’où des risques d’incohérence, de rigidité du SI et notamment une grande difficulté de communication dans le cadre de collaboration interentreprises. Pour répondre à ces aléas, il importe de définir un SI agile et interopérable et de réorganiser les processus pour supporter la chaîne de valeur de l’entreprise. C’est dans cet objectif que nous proposons de développer un Lean ESB (Enterprise Service Bus), socle d’une Architecture Orientée Services, doté d’une couche sémantique métier. Nous avons défini quatre modules du Lean ESB : • Le module de médiation définit les échanges d’information entre les différents métiers et entre le métier et la technologie pour assurer le fonctionnement des autres modules. • Le module de chorégraphie dynamique permet de composer les services industriels pour définir les processus selon les besoins de production spécifiés par le client. • Le module de routage intelligent organise les ressources de l’atelier pour définir des processus en flux tirés. • Le module de monitoring et gouvernance permet de contrôler la performance de la production et la qualité des produits. / To meet the economic constraints (growth of mass customization demands, globalization and cost reducing), the development of new strategies forms as a “Just In Time” production strategy or “Lean Manufacturing” needs to reorganize the enterprise taking into account the activities which generates value (following the value-chain logic) in order to avoid wastefulness. This strategy leads to a business refocusing and a value-chain extension. The enterprise has to develop collaboration strategies (Bare and Cox, 2008 ; Davis, 1987) and has to have a Lean (just in time response) Information Systems (IS), agile IS to react fluctuations, open IS to support a partnership with suppliers, customers and partners and interoperable IS to make easier the communication between systems and business views. However, the enterprise IS contains multiple systems: ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), MES (Manufacturing Execution System), PLM (Product Life-cycle Management), SCM (Supply Chain Management)…Each system is designed to meet a particular business view, and is developed according to specific business requirementswithout any standardization which cause redundancy, heterogeneity and increase the volume of information including an inconsistency, a rigidity of the IS and a difficulty of inter-enterprise collaboration. To face theses disadvantages we have to define an agile and interoperable IS and to reorganize processes to support the enterprise value-chain. Therefore, we propose to develop a Lean ESB (Enterprise Service Bus) which is a Service Oriented Architecture middleware, improved by a business semantic layer. We defined four modules of Lean ESB:• The mediation module defines information exchange between a business layers and IS and insures other modules operating. • The dynamic choreography module enables industrial services composition to define processes in accordance with customer demands. • The intelligent routing module organizes workshop resources in order to reorganize processes in a pull flow strategy. • The monitoring and governance module enables the control of production performance and products quality.

En Perú, uno de los eslabones más importantes en la cadena de producción es el sector metalmecánico, debido a la contribución al PBI nacional en un 16.5% y la generación de millones de puestos de trabajo. Sin embargo, estudios estadísticos recientes han demostrado que las empresas metalmecánicas peruanas poseen una capacidad de producción de 40.6%, debido principalmente a deficiencias operativas como la baja disponibilidad de las máquinas, altos tiempos de configuración y desperdicios de producción. Este problema impide satisfacer la demanda proyectada que posee el sector y la generación de ingresos al país. Por ello, la presente investigación ofrece una solución aplicando un modelo de eficiencia operativa, la cual combina herramientas propias de la filosofía Lean Manufacturing, tales como SMED, Mantenimiento Productivo Total (TPM) y 5s bajo la metodología Kaizen. Como variables de entrada y salida del modelo se ubican los datos de producción, indicadores, técnicas de apoyo y nuevos procedimientos generados. El modelo fue validado en una empresa metalmecánica, en donde se obtuvo una mejora del 8% del OEE, reducción de los tiempos de configuración en 21% y reducción de la tasa de productos defectuosos en proceso del 20%. Esta nueva solución industrial permitirá a las empresas de la industria ser más competitivas en el mercado y adaptarlas a sus diferentes necesidades. / In Peru, one of the most important links in the production chain is the metalworking sector, due to the contribution to national GDP of 16.5% and the generation of millions of jobs. However, recent statistical studies have shown that Peruvian metalworking companies have a production capacity of 40.6%, mainly due to operational deficiencies such as low availability of machines, high setup times and production waste. The projected demand cannot be satisfied and the income to the country cannot be generated because of this problem. Therefore, this research offers a solution by applying an operational efficiency model, which combines Lean Manufacturing tools, such as SMED, Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and 5s on the Kaizen methodology. There are inputs and output in the model like production data, indicators, support techniques and new procedures. The model was validated in a metalworking company, where the OEE was improved by 8%, set up time was reduced by 21% and the rate of defective products in process was decreased by 20%. This new industrial solution will allow companies in the metalworking sector to be more competitive in the market and change to their different needs. / Trabajo de investigación

yes / Purpose – Cost reduction through the use of technology has become the competitive strength of companies. The benefits of technology integration are quite credible and have been effective in business competition. The purpose of this paper is to describe an integrated manufacturing strategy for the deployment of a CAD/CAM system in a small, medium manufacturing enterprise (SMME). Design/methodology/approach – A case study of a SMME is utilised in deploying an integrated CAD/CAM system for practical application of manufacturing technology for achieving sustainable growth through lean systems design (LSD). The paper presents a techno-economic and technology change management framework, with an application of a holistic set of lean deployment tools that include establishing a strategic and operational plan for implementing CAD/CAM systems as a means to achieving world-class performance. Findings – The paper shows that the CAD/CAM integration within the case company increased knowledge of CAD/CAM technology, productivity, and flexibility whilst reducing throughput times. Based on the literature review and the current case study, a framework for ideal CAD/CAM implementation has been proposed. The paper also shows that management and organisational structures are key inhibitors for successful implementation of technology integration. Research limitations/implications – The paper uses a single case study to validate deployment of the integrated manufacturing strategy in SMMEs. Hence there is a limitation to its generality. Practical implications – ThepaperprovidesanopportunitytofurtherunderstandCAD/CAMsystem implementation protocols within a well structured framework and its configuration within SMMEs. Social implications – The CAD/CAM implementation framework will allow the SMMEs to achieve Lean manufacturing (thereby minimising wastes) leading to improved growth and employment rates. Originality/value – The presentation of conceptualisation, development and implementation of an integrated CAD/CAM system in support of organisational wide Lean manufacturing initiative in SMMEs is an originality of this paper.

В выпускной квалификационной работе раскрыта сущность теоретико-методических подходов формирования и развития концепции бережливого производства, рассмотрена терминология, принципы маркетинга и бережливого производства, методики внедрения бережливого производства. По результатам исследования предложена авторская методика внедрения бережливого производства, методика выбора инструментов бережливого производства. Проведен анализ текущей ситуации на рынке, определено положение системообразующих предприятий, проведен анализ деятельности компании, даны рекомендации. В рамках исследования предлагается концепция проекта по внедрению бережливого производства в производственную и управленческую систему ООО «Бергауф Строительные Технологии». / In the final qualifying work, the essence of theoretical and methodological approaches to the formation and development of the concept of lean production is revealed, terminology, principles of marketing and lean production, methods of implementing lean production are considered. According to the results of the study, the author's methodology for the introduction of lean production, the methodology for choosing lean production tools is proposed. The analysis of the current market situation is carried out, the position of the backbone enterprises is determined, the analysis of the company's activities is carried out, recommendations are given. Within the framework of the study, a project concept is proposed for the introduction of lean manufacturing into the production and management system of «Bergauf Construction Technologies».

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The concept of a business existing to fulfil the wants and needs of the various stakeholders acknowledges that the prime goal of any commercial business is that of profit maximisation and the resultant stock price maximisation (Brigham & Ehrhardt, 2002:10). Any decision by the senior management or the board of an organisation should be primarily in the interest of its shareholders. It follows that any decision that does not add shareholder value subtracts from shareholder value; in other words, decisions must impact the bottom line financially. The manufacturing sector has seen its fair share of methods, interventions and programmes aimed at cost reduction and profit maximisation through a variety of total quality management (TOM), statistical process control (SPC), right/downsizing, efficiency improvements and yield maximisation. One of the most enduring and successful of these has been the advent of the lean manufacturing philosophy, defined as the complete and thorough elimination of waste to reduce the time line from receipt of customer order to delivery. It is a process-focused philosophy and not results focused, the belief being that the elimination of waste from all aspects of the process will ultimately result in financial success. Toyota have developed, and perfected more than most, the concept of lean manufacturing. They have termed their lean initiative the Toyota Production System (TPS). At the core of TPS is the concept of one piece flow controlled by customer pull. Given the success derived from TPS by Toyota it is only natural that other organisations have shown interest and have attempted, in varying degrees of success, to copy the TPS. But the magnitude of attempting to change the philosophy of an organisation in the short term is a daunting task and it is understandable why adopters of a lean way forward have rather turned to the lean tools as drivers of the process and value. The attraction of lean tools is that they can be applied in many areas of an organisation independent of one another. Organisations have a range of needs that need to be satisfied which include growth, increased profits, cash now and talent retention. The need to decide what interventions to apply when and where and what impact to profit and share value is of paramount importance to decision makers of organisations. By analysis of the results of a global industrial packaging company's efforts to implement lean through a tool-based approach, this study attempts to offer guidance to those organisations interested in implementing lean tools. The tools employed comprise four operational and three commercial tools. A financial model examining the impact of the tools on financial metrics is then developed and tested. The results show that the impact of the applied tools impact directly financial metrics used by investors to assess the relative attractiveness of an organisation's shares for the period 2003 to 2007. Further research should be conducted to determine the performance of the organisation for a ten to fifteen-year period to determine future success. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die konsep dat 'n sakeondememing bestaan om die verwagtinge en behoeftes van die onderskeie rolspelers te dien erken dat maksimale wins en die gevolglike optimale aandeleprys die primere doelwitte van enige kommersiele onderneming is (Brigham & Ehrhardt, 2002:10). Enige besluit deur die senior bestuur of the direksie van 'n ondememing behoort dus primer in die belang van sodanige ondememing se aandeelhouers te wees. Gevolglik sal enige besluit wat geen waarde tot die aandeelhouer bied nie, sodanige waarde verminder en moontlik lei tot disinvestering; met ander woorde, besluite moet finansieel 'n invloed op winsgewendheid he. Die vervaardigingsektor het al verskeie metodes, ingrypings en programme beleef wat gemik is op kostevermindering en winsverhoging deur middel van 'n verskeidenheid van algehele kwaliteitsbestuur ("total quality management"), statistiese prosesbeheer ("statistical process control"), herstrukturering deur middel van sogenaamde afskaling ("rightdownsizing"), verbetering van effektiwiteit en opbrengs. Een van die standhoudendste en suksesvolste van hierdie is die skep van die "spilvrye" vervaardigingsfilosofie ("lean manufacturing philosophy") wat gedefinieer word as: die totale en volledige eliminering van verspilling om die tydsverloop tussen die ontvangs van die klient se bestelling tot die aflewering te verminder. Die aanname word gemaak dat die eliminering van verspilling vanuit alle aspekte van die proses uiteindelik finansiele sukses tot gevolg sal he. Die filosofie is dus gefokus op die proses en nie op resultate nie. Toyota het die konsep van "spilvrye"-vervaardiging ontwikkel en, meer as ander, vervolmaak en verwys na hul inisiatief as die "Toyota Production System" of TPS. Sentraal tot die TPS is die konsep van enkel-aaneenlopende produksievloei beheer deur klienteopdrag en -behoefte. As gevolg van Toyota se sukses met die toepassing van die TPS is dit te verwagte dat ander organisasies belangstelling sou toon en met wisselende sukses gepoog het om die TPS na te boots. Om die filosofie van 'n organisasie in die kort termyn te verander is so 'n omvangryke taak dat dit begryplik is waarom nuwe bekeerlinge tot die "spilvrye" -filosofie eerder "spilvrye"-instrumente verkies as die dryfvere van die proses en waarde. Die aantrekkingskrag van "spilvrye"-instrumente is dat dit onafhanklik van mekaar in baie areas van 'n organisasie deur individue, werkspanne of konsultante aangewend kan word. Insluitend groei, die verhoging van wins, kontantvloei en die behoud van talent, het organisasies uiteenlopende behoeftes wat aangespreek moet word. Dit is van die uiterste belang vir besluitnemers van organisasies om te besluit op toepaslike ingryping, wanneer en waar, asook die uitwerking op wins en aandeelwaarde. As 'n poging om belangstellende organisasies te help, bied hierdie studie 'n analise van die resultate voortspruitend uit 'n globale industriele verpakkingsmaatskappy se pogings om die "spilvrye" konsep deur middel van 'n instrument-gebaseerde benadering te implementeer. Die resultate toon dat die impak van die toegepaste instrumente 'n direkte invloed het op die finansiele meetinstrumente, wat deur beleggers aangewend word om die relatiewe aantrekkingskrag van 'n organisasie se aandele vir die tydperk 2003 tot 2007 te bepaal. Om toekomstige sukses te bepaal behoort verdere navorsing egter gedoen te word ten opsigte van die organisasie se prestasie oor 'n tien- tot vyftien-jaar tydperk.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Purpose: Literature on World Class Manufacturing is very limited. Some information exists on the concepts behind it, but very little exist on the framework and physical implementation. Also, a lot of information is available on other productivity improvement initiatives but not a lot is mentioned about the implementation thereof and the difficulties experienced during the implementation. This paper aims to provide not only an overview of the framework of World Class Manufacturing as interpreted by ArcelorMittal, but also a case study of such an implementation. Design/Methodology/Approach: The approach taken with this paper is to give an overview of the World Class Manufacturing framework as interpreted by ArcelorMittal and to provide a case study of an actual implementation thereof. Findings: Productivity improvement initiatives have real value for the companies that implement them, but this value can only be sustained if the principles behind them are entrenched in the company’s strategy. Practical Implications: The result of this paper is the design of a Business Management Framework that will support the sustainability of a World Class Manufacturing implementation. Originality/Value: The value of this paper lies not only with the building of the body of knowledge with respect to World Class Manufacturing but also in the design of a new concept for the support of sustained value creation of World Class Manufacturing. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Doel: Literatuur oor “World Class Manaufacturing” is baie beperk. Daar is wel literatuur oor die konsepte agter dit, maar daar bestaan baie min literatuur oor die raamwerk asook die fisiese implementering. Daar bestaan ook baie literatuur oor ander produktiwiteits verbetering initiatiewe, maar daarin word daar ook baie min melding gemaak van die implementering asook die probleme wat ondervind word gedurende die tyd. Die verslag se mikpunt is om ’n oorsig te gee van die raamwerk van “World Class Manufacturing” soos wat dit deur ArcelorMittal geinterpreteer word, asook om ’n voorbeeld te gee van so ’n implementering. Ontwerp/Metodologie/Aanslag: Die aanslag wat geneem is met die verslag is om ‘n oorsig te gee van die raamwerk van “World Class Manufacturing” soos wat dit geinterpreteer word deur ArcelorMittal asook om ‘n voorbeeld te gee van die implementering daarvan. Bevindings: Produktiwiteits verbetering initiatiewe lewer regte waarde aan die maatskappye wat dit implementeer, maar die waarde kan net volhou word as die beginsels agter die initiatiewe ingeburger word in die maatskappy se strategie. Praktiese Implikasies: Die resultaat van die verslag is die ontwerp van ‘n Besigheids Bestuur Raamwerk wat die volhoubaarheid van die implementering van “World Class Manufacturing” sal ondersteun. Oorspronklikheid/Waarde: Die waarde van die verslag le nie net in die opbou van die kennis wat beskikbaar is oor “World Class Manufacturing” nie, maar ook in die ontwerp van ’n nuwe konsep for the onderhouding van volhoubare waarde skepping met “World Class Manufacturing”.

Training plays a major role in improving work within organisations by ensuring that the appropriate level of knowledge and skills are shared among personnel. It moulds the thinking process and leads to quality performance. However, training which includes a practical aspect usually targets a specific type of trainee and can limit the learning of an individual coming from a different background than that taken into consideration when the training programme was originally developed. This research focuses on training, and attempts to develop a program using a virtual reality (VR) system as a platform to create a simulated working environment which has the flexibility to train staff members of an organisation, who may come from a variety of different professional backgrounds, in the concept of the lean enablers. The main concern of this research is the adaptation of lean training for a virtual environment. Existing training methods have been analysed, along with the various ways in which they can be implemented, and these have been used in this research as a starting point from which to construct the virtual work environment. Through the research, a method has been developed to set up and run a training session using a virtual reality (VR) system by generating a structure to design the modelling elements that compose the virtual workplace, as well as establishing a method so that a trainee can navigate the simulated environment and perform tasks. A program to collect the performance measures and visualise the results has also been developed, with the aim of enabling the evaluation of a simulation run by assessors/trainers. This research covers new ground in providing a simulated working environment, which can suit any trainee’s professional background, to facilitate learning about the lean enablers. It offers the capacity of establishing a simulated work environment which can represent the trainee’s workplace and provide the necessary practical experience in order to grasp the concept taught through the training program. Additionally it offers the capacity for assessors/trainers to observe the performance measures and the trainee’s behaviour, simultaneously, while undertaking a simulation run. These combinations of information can be complementary and enable assessors/trainers in providing the best feedback while improving the learning curve of a trainee. Although training programmes in organisations have provided a number of improvements in completing work with high efficiency and minimum waste, the outcomes collected in this research demonstrate that their benefits can be pushed further in terms of providing a training method which can be accessible to a large variety of sectors.

Purpose - A research gap was identified in relation to the production related factors during ramp-up. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to “simplify production ramp-up by defining how measures could be prioritised in high technology company.” Method – The study used a single-case study method with a qualitative and explorative approach. This method was used to gain in-depth knowledge of the case. The study was conducted at Saab, a high technology company within the aerospace industry. Findings – The findings included a list of critical factors for ramp-up control and two additional critical factors that are relevant to high technology companies, along with five additional measures. From the case the main critical factors were related to personnel, education and experience. Implications – The study has contributed with a simplified ramp-up control method with implications for high technology industries. The new method will contribute to a more effective time to volume phase relevant for both practitioners and researchers. Limitations - As the study uses a new ramp-up control method it has only been applied to one case. The complete data from the case cannot be showcased due to secrecy.

The purpose of this study was to find a method for exploring the potential of increasing the efficiency of a manual manufacturing process while simultaneously maintaining the flexibility and the ability to adjust to changes in demand. The study has been conducted in cooperation with Scania CV AB Engine Assembly in Södertälje, Sweden. This explorative study has been conducted using a framework mixing traditional Quality and Process Management literature, with theories of Innovation Management and ways of designing a production process. The framework was designed by focusing on perspectives to help explain and optimize the dynamics of a manual assembly process characterized by high variation. Increasing the efficiency has included the elimination of waste and disturbances while creating opportunities for continuous improvement. Improving the ability to adjust to changes in demand and volume has included reorganization of the information flow. Activities aimed at increasing the efficiency and improving flexibility requires a base of information which is sufficient and enables fact-based decision-making. An analysis of the current state was conducted using triangulation of data collection methods. Interviews, observations, focus groups, surveys, and numeric data was analyzed. Tools of Quality Management, Lean Management, and the Productivity Potential Assessment method were used to develop a framework for evaluating a manual production process and aim to collect, process, compile, weigh, prioritize, and visualize the processes and the identified challenges. Identification of improvement activities and the design of a future state was conducted through extensive interviews and focus groups and by interpreting relevant literature. Mapping of the current state generated five primary challenges which are complicating the daily work in different ways. The challenge estimated to have the highest overall impact on the studied process is Time Data Management. This challenge refers to the lack of valid and correct data on which to accurately plan and control the process.

Essa dissertação pretende identificar uma forma de fazer com que as indústrias incorporem objetivos de preservação ambiental aos seus sistemas de produção de forma mais fácil, rápida e sem perda da competitividade, para contribuírem mais significativamente com o esforço mundial pela sustentabilidade do planeta. Para isso, o trabalho se propõe a alcançar dois objetivos. O primeiro é organizar o conhecimento disponível até agora em torno dos modelos de produção com preocupação ambiental e fazer uma comparação entre eles, de modo a auxiliar o gestor interessado em adotá-los a fazer sua opção. O segundo objetivo é pesquisar a viabilidade da utilização de ferramentas de gerenciamento de produção simples e disponíveis a qualquer empresa, para obter uma melhoria de rendimento também no aspecto ambiental, além da melhoria da produtividade e da qualidade. A pesquisa foi feita com empresas do setor de fundição no Estado de São Paulo, por ser este um setor de grande importância na economia e apresentar um alto potencial de degradação ambiental. O método escolhido foi o estudo de casos múltiplos, com levantamento de dados em 10 empresas. Através de entrevista pessoal, foram avaliados quesitos referentes à aderência das empresas ao modelo da Produção Enxuta e ao modelo da Produção mais Limpa. O modelo da PE foi escolhido como objeto de estudo por ser um modelo muito difundido e suas práticas serem bem conhecidas. Além disso, baseia-se na redução de desperdícios, que tem uma identificação grande com a racionalização de recursos do modelo da P+L. Este modelo, por sua vez, foi selecionado a partir do resultado das comparações efetuadas na busca do objetivo 1. Por ser um modelo ligado mais diretamente aos processos de transformação, este modelo mostra-se mais adequado para ser adotado nos processos de produção. Os dados coletados serviram para responder a três questões de pesquisa, através da análise da correlação entre o grau de aderência aos dois modelos. Além dessa relação, foram estudadas a influência da certificação do sistema de gerenciamento ambiental e a necessidade de medidas complementares à PE para melhorar o rendimento ambiental. A conclusão da pesquisa mostrou que é possível alcançar metas de desempenho ambiental com a utilização de práticas de PE. Além de não implicar em aumento de custos, por não se tornar uma atividade extra, a empresa ainda se beneficia com o aumento da produtividade e da redução de desperdícios. / This thesis aims to identify a way to make the industries incorporate goals of environmental preservation to their production systems more easily, quickly and without loss of competitiveness, and then to contribute more significantly to the global effort for sustainability of the planet. For this, this paper aims to achieve two goals. The first is to organize the available knowledge about the production models with environmental concerns and make a comparison between them, to assist managers of manufacturing firms interested in adopting them to make his choice. The second objective is to investigate the feasibility of using simple management tools production, available to any company, to get increased revenue, also to the environmental aspects, as well as improving productivity and quality. The research was conducted with companies in the foundry sector in the State of São Paulo, because it is a very important sector to the economy and has a high potential for environmental degradation. The method chosen was multiple case study with data collection in 10 companies. Through personal interview, questions were evaluated regarding adherence to the model of Lean Manufacturing and to the model of Cleaner Production. The LM model was chosen as the object of study to be a widespread model and its practices well known. Furthermore, it is based on the reduction of waste, which has a large identification with the resource rationalization aspects of the model of P + L. This model, in turn, was selected from the results of the comparisons made in the pursuit of the goal number one. Being a model more directly linked to the transformation processes, this model seems to be more suitable to be adopted in production processes. The data collected served to answer three research questions by analyzing the correlation of the adherence level to the two models. Besides this relationship, it has been studied the influence of the certification of environmental management systems and the need for additional actions to the LM to improve environmental performance. The conclusion of this study showed that it is possible to achieve environmental performance goals by the use of LM practices. Besides not resulting in increased costs, because it will not become an extra activity, the company will still have benefits from increased productivity and reduction of waste.