This project deals with the concepts of care, contentedness and self-reflection in light of the ecological plights that face our planet and the way that my artistic practice reflects this. It achieves this by focusing on marine forms of plastic pollution along Cape Town’s coastline as well as on the water resources during Cape Town’s water crisis that started in 2017. To unite these areas of interest, the conceptual platform and the visual associations of “a low tide” were used to navigate material and practical considerations of my chosen alternative photographic media and how they can best address such interests. / Art and Music / M.V.A.

The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil platform on April 20, 2010 resulted in the second largest oil spill in history. In this study, the distribution and chemical composition of hydrocarbons within a 45 km radius of the blowout was investigated. A complete set of hydrocarbon data were acquired from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and from BP, including data from 16 research missions collected over eight weeks. The distribution of hydrocarbons was found to be more dispersed over a wider area in subsurface waters than previously predicted or reported. Several hydrocarbon plumes were identified including a near-surface plume (0.5 to 50 m), two small mid-depth plume (240 to 290 m and 850 to 880 m), and a large deepwater plume approximately 1,050 to 1,300 m below surface. Water soluble compounds were preferentially extracted from the rising oil in deepwater, and were found at potentially toxic levels both in and outside of areas previously reported to contain the majority of hydrocarbons. Data collected from different research missions were measured for a wide variety of chemical compounds, but not every sample was analyzed for the same chemical compounds. To overcome the challenge of variability in sample data, a non-parametric method of evaluating the percentage of detectable results, was used for all data analysis in addition to evaluation of total sample concentrations. The two analysis techniques yielded similar results. This approach may be useful in other studies in which samples are measured for varying number of compounds and have varying detection limits. The distribution and toxicity of hydrocarbons in sediments between August and October, 2010 was also investigated and was found to be fairly localized.

This thesis deals with the study and normative proposal for a regulation of noise pollution generated by merchant ships, which is the main cause of underwater noise pollution. It is divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, the aspects of marine acoustics are reviewed, including a revisit of hydrophones, the analysis of the distances at which sound intensities are maintained above a baseline level, and a self designed study, which leads to the conclusion that the differences in incremental trends in underwater sound intensity in previous studies are due to differences in maritime traffic. This is confirmed by highly significant statistical data obtained by binary logistic regression between hydrophonic records that have detected an increase and those that have not (p<0.0001). A compilation and bibliometric analysis has made it possible to study specifically the negative impact of ship-generated noise on marine species. In 87% of the publications consulted, including experimental data, a high or moderately high negative impact of sound on marine species was evident; only 5% of the articles reported no effects of noise pollution. The study covered a wide variety of seas and oceans, although most of the studies (31%) were conducted using cages or similar. The research was mainly conducted on fish (43%) and mammals (38%). Behavioural changes were recorded in 59% of cases, physical changes in 11%, masking in 11% and combined changes in 14%. Four levels of underwater sound intensity are proposed: Environmental zone 0 (no appreciable anthropogenic pollution), from baseline level (30 dB) to 80 dB. Zone A of acceptable (low) pollution, from 81 dB to 175 dB (threshold of potential damage). Zone B of tolerable, but potentially harmful sound intensities (between 176 dB and 195 dB) and a Zone C of risk of permanent injury (above 195 dB, permanent injury threshold); vessels generating intensities at this level should be penalised or even banned. A way forward for the future regulation of underwater noise pollution is suggested, through a concerted effort via a global track derived from the UN in collaboration with specialised global and EU organisations, including the Baltic Sea registers, and legal support from the experts of the World Commission on Environmental Law. Its implementation should be carried out through the International Maritime Organization IMO).

L’Arctique est victime de bouleversements majeurs en raison des changements climatiques. Contrairement au régime général pour la zone économique exclusive, l'article 234 de la Convention des Nations unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982 autorise les États côtiers à adopter et à imposer des standards nationaux (plutôt qu'internationaux) pour prévenir et maîtriser la pollution du milieu marin par les navires mais seulement dans les zones de leur zone économique exclusive recouvertes par les glaces « pendant la majeure partie de l'année ». Or, les données et rapports scientifiques prévoient qu'en raison du réchauffement climatique exacerbé dans la région, l'océan Arctique sera libre de glace pendant plusieurs mois chaque année, et ce, à compter de 2050. Une telle transformation physique semblerait remettre en cause l'applicabilité de l'article 234 et les droits qui en découlent pour les États côtiers. Le mémoire propose donc d'aborder cet enjeu en analysant le contexte et les motivations des États au moment où l'article 234 a été adopté. Une attention particulière sera portée à l’étude du développement du droit de la mer moderne ainsi qu’aux négociations entourant l’article 234, en vue de formuler des arguments en faveur de son applicabilité future, basés sur les méthodes d’interprétation des traités. / The Arctic region is the victim of major upheavals due to climate change. Unlike the general regime for the exclusive economic zone, Article 234 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea allows coastal states to adopt and impose national (rather than international) standards to prevent and control the pollution of the marine environment by ships, but only in areas of their exclusive economic zone covered by ice "for most of the year". However, the data and scientific reports predict that due to exacerbated global warming in the region, the Arctic Ocean will be free of ice for several months each year, starting in 2050. Such a physical transformation would seem to call into question the applicability of Article 234 and the resulting rights of coastal States. This thesis therefore proposes to address this issue by analyzing the context and the motivations of the States at the time when Article 234 was adopted. Particular attention will be paid to the study of the development of the modern law of the sea as well as to the negotiations around Article 234, in order to formulate arguments in favor of its future applicability, based on treaty interpretation methods.

La mer joue un rôle essentiel dans la régulation du climat et dans l'équilibre écologique. Les océans et les mers constituent une source de richesse, un immense réservoir de ressources alimentaires et d'emplois pour un grand nombre de personnes. La mer Méditerranée est un écosystème sensible soumis à de fortes pressions par les activités humaines comme la pêche, l'exploration gazière et pétrolière, l'immersion des déchets ou d'autres matières en mer, le transport maritime, le transfert d'espèces aquatiques envahissantes par les eaux de ballast et le tourisme littoral. La France durement touchée par les naufrages de l'Amoco Cadiz, de l'Erika et du Prestige, a pris de nombreuses initiatives tant au niveau international que régional. La complexité du problème de la pollution marine, due à la diversité des facteurs polluants et à leurs sources diffuses, a favorisé une approche sectorielle. Cette approche s'est traduite par l'adoption, aux niveaux national, régional et international, d'un ensemble disparate de politiques, textes législatifs, programmes et plans d'action dans le domaine de la protection du milieu marin. Il s'agit d'un corps de règles étouffées comprenant des mesures préventives et répressives. La complexité institutionnelle et juridique de la protection du milieu marin empêche pourtant la protection effective de la mer. Dans ce contexte, la communauté internationale encourage la mise en œuvre d'une approche écosystématique pour les océans. À l'échelle européenne, l'adoption de la directive-cadre « stratégie pour le milieu marin » favorise la cohérence entre les différentes politiques européennes et l'intégration des préoccupations environnementales dans toutes les politiques liées à la mer. De plus, l'efficacité de la législation européenne dans le domaine de la lutte contre la pollution marine a été renforcée par l'adoption d'un cadre commun de responsabilité pour la prévention et la réparation des préjudices environnementaux. / The sea plays a vital role in regulating climate and in maintaining ecological balance. The oceans and the sea constitute a source of wealth, an immense reservoir of food resources and of employment for many people. The Mediterranean Sea is a sensitive ecosystem, subject to strong pressures derived from human activities, such as fishing, oil and gas exploration, dumping of waste and other matter in the sea, maritime transport, transfer of aquatic invasive species via ballast water and littoral tourism. France, severely affected by the sinking of the Amoco Cadiz, the Erika and the Prestige, took numerous initiatives not only at an international but also at a regional level. The complexity of the marine pollution problem, due to the diversity of polluting factors and to their diffuse sources, has favored a regional approach. This approach has resulted in the adoption, at a national, regional and international level, of a network of policies, legislative texts, programs and action plans in the field of marine environment protection. It constitutes a stifling body of rules, comprising preventive and repressive measures. The institutional and legal complexity of marine protection hinders, however, the effective protection of the marine environment. ln this context, the international community encourages the implementation of an ecosystem approach to oceans. At European level, the adoption of the Framework Directive «Strategy for the Marine Environment» favours a consistency between different EU policies as well as an integration of environmental considerations into ail policies related to the sea. Furthermore, the effectiveness of European legislation in the field of the fight again marine pollution, has been reinforced by the adoption of a common framework of liability with regard to the prevention and remedy of environment damage.

Thesis (PhD) -- Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT:Heavy metals are persistent environmental contaminants whose sources of inputs into the environment are both natural and anthropogenic. The levels of heavy metals (cadmium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc) in the False Bay intertidal zone were measured in the water, sediments and invertebrate species between August 2000 and August 2001. The results of the water and sediment analyses revealed that most pollution was associated with the northern shore of the bay between Strand and Muizenberg, where the most populated and industrial catchments occur. Significant spatial variations occurred, indicating the presence of localised contamination, while seasonal variations may be related to changes in precipitation and runoff at different times of the year. The concentrations of cadmium, nickel and lead were occasionally higher than the levels recommended by the South African Water Quality Standards. The possible sources of pollution at the different sites are also discussed. The concentrations of the five metals in the different invertebrate species (Oxystele tigrina, 0. sinensis, Choromytilus meridionalis, Patella oculus, Patiriella exigua and Tetraclita serrata) also revealed significant seasonal and spatial variations, with both the soft tissues and shells accumulating heavy metals. The barnacle T serrata from Rooiels had the highest cadmium concentration (70.67 J.lg/g dry weight), which may be related to historic pollution inputs from the military activities which took place at a weapons testing site at this site between 1987 and 1994, although no evidence was found to confirm this. The periwinkle 0. tigrina from Strand had the highest copper concentration (70.25 J.lg/g) while the limpet P. oculus from the same site had the highest nickel concentration (35.75 J.lg/g). The shells of the mussel C. meridionalis from Muizenberg had the highest concentration of lead (25.75 J.lg/g). Since cadmium occurs as a constituent of phosphate fertilisers used widely in the False Bay catchments, the effects of cadmium exposure on the different species were investigated during 14-day laboratory exposures to 200 and 400 J.lg/LCdCh. The results revealed a general pattern of tissue metal increase in the exposed organisms, followed by slight reductions after decontamination in clean seawater. The viscera and kidneys of C. meridionalis accumulated most of the dissolved cadmium. The shells of the mussels also accumulated cadmium, indicating the possible use of shells as a detoxification matrix. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING:Swaarmetale is persisterende omgewingskontaminante waarvan die insetbronne beide natuurlik of van menslike oorsprong kan wees. Die kontaminasievlakke van swaarmetale (kadmium, koper, nikkel, lood en sink) in die Valsbaai tussengetysone is in die water, sedimente en invertebraatspesies bepaal vanaf Augustus 2000 tot Augustus 2001. Voorlopige resultate van die water- en sedimentontledings het getoon dat die meeste besoedeling by die noordelikke oewer van die baai voorgekom het tussen Strand and Muizenberg, waar die mees digbewoonde en ge-industrialiseerde opvangsgebiede is. Betekenisvolle ruimtelike en seisoenale variasie het in die konsentrasies van swaarmetale voorgekom, met die ruimtelike variasie wat moontlik gelokaliseerde kontaminasie aandui terwyl die seisoenale variasies weer verband mag hou met veranderings in die neerslag en afloop gedurende verskillende tye van die jaar. Die konsentrasie van kadmium, nikkel en lood was somtyds hoer as die vlakke wat deur die Suid-Afrikaanse Waterkwaliteitsstandaarde voorgestel word. Die moontlike bronne van besoedeling in die verskillende areas is ook in bespreking genoem. Die konsentrasies van die vyf swaametale in die verskillende invertebraatspesies (Oxystele tigrina, 0. sinensis, Choromytilus meridionalis, Patella oculus, Patiriella exigua and Tetraclita serrata) het ook seisoenale en ruimtelike variasies vertoon, die swaarmetale het in die sagte weefsel en skulpe van die invertebrate geakkumuleer. Die hoogste gemiddelde konsentrasie van kadmium (70.67 ).lg/g droe massa) is in die heel-liggaam monsters van die eendemossel T serrata gemeet wat by Rooiels versamel is. Die vlakke mag verband hou met die oprigting en aktiwiteite van die wapentoetsingsaanleg in die opvanggebied van die Rooiels lokaliteit tussen 1987 en 1994, maar geen bewyse daarvan is gevind nie. Die tolletjie, 0. tigrina wat in die 10kaliteit by Strand versamel is het die hoogste gemiddelde konsentrasie koper gehad 70.25 pig droe massa), terwyl die klipmossel P. oculus by dieselfde versamelpunt die hoogste konsentrasie nikkel (35.75 ).lg/gdroe massa) gehad het. Eksperimentele studies is ook uitgevoer op vier invertebraat spesies wat vir 14 dae in akwaria blootgestel is aan see-water met 200 en 400 p,g/L CdCh, en daama gedekontamineer is in skoon seewater. / The NRF and the University of Stellenbosch, for funding this study.

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Technology: Environmental Health in the Faculty of Applied Sciences at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2013 / Water is an important daily requirement and in a clean, pure form, it promotes health and well-being. In addition to South Africa being one of the driest countries in the world, water availability is also being compromised by massive pollution of remaining water sources. The Berg- and Plankenburg Rivers are two of the surface water sources in the Western Cape, South Africa, which are highly polluted by sewage, industrial and agricultural run-off. The current investigation was aimed at comparing diagnostic tools, which are employed by municipalities and food industries, and molecular based techniques to routinely monitor water for indicator organisms in time- and cost-effective manner. These rivers were sampled twice a month (July 2010 to January 2011) at the sites closest to the informal settlements of Kayamandi in Stellenbosch (Plankenburg River) and Mbekweni in Paarl (Berg River). The contamination levels of the two river systems were evaluated by the enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliforms using the Colilert 18® system, Membrane Filtration (MF) and Multiple Tube Fermentation (MTF) techniques. The highest faecal coliform count of 9.2 × 106 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained in weeks 21 and 28 from the Plankenburg River system by the MTF technique, while the lowest count of 1.1 × 103 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained in week one for both river systems by the MTF technique. The highest E. coli count of 1.7 × 106 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained from the Berg River system (week 9) using the MTF technique, while the lowest count of 3.6 × 102 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained by the MF technique from the Plankenburg River system. The coliform and E. coli counts obtained by the enumeration techniques thus significantly (p > 0.05) exceeded the guidelines of 2000 microorganisms/100 ml stipulated by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF, 1996) for water used in recreational purposes. Overall the results obtained in this study showed that the water in the Berg- and Plankenburg River systems is highly polluted, especially where these water sources are used for irrigational and recreational purposes. For the coliform and E. coli counts obtained using the three enumeration techniques, it was noted that the MTF technique was more sensitive and obtained higher counts for most of the sampling weeks. However, the media (Membrane lactose glucuronide agar) used in the MF technique also effectively recovered environmentally stressed microbial cells and it was also better for the routine selection and growth of coliforms and E. coli. While E. coli and total coliforms were detected utilising the Colilert 18® system, accurate enumeration values for these two indicator groups was not obtained for the entire sampling period for both river systems. It has previously been shown that dilutions (up to 10-3) of highly polluted waters increase the accuracy of the Colilert 18® system to enumerate colifoms and E. coli in marine waters. As the results obtained utilising the Colilert 18® system were also not comparable to the MF and MTF techniques it is recommended that highly polluted water samples be diluted to increase the accuracy of this system as a routine enumeration technique. Water samples were directly inoculated onto MacConkey, Vile Red Bile (VRB) agar and the Chromocult Coliform agar (CCA) and single colonies were inoculated onto nutrient agar. Chromocult coliform agar proved to be more sensitive than MacConkey and VRB agar for the culturing of E. coli and coliforms. Preliminary identification of these colonies was done using the RapID ONE and API 20 E systems. The most isolated Enterobacteriaceae species by both systems, included Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Escherichia coli and Enterobacter cloacae in both river systems. The API 20 E system was more sensitive in the preliminary identification of the various isolates, as greater species diversity was obtained in comparison to the RapID ONE system. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was firstly optimised using positive Enterobacteriaceae species. The optimised method was then applied to the analysis of river water samples, which were centrifuged to harvest the bacterial cells, with DNA extracted using the boiling method. The extracted DNA was amplified using conventional PCR with the aid of species specific primers. The Enterobacteriaceae species that were detected throughout the study period in both river systems include Serratia marcescens, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus cereus. Conventional PCR was the most reliable and sensitive technique to detect Enterobacteriaceae to species level in a short period of time when compared to RapID ONE and the API 20 E systems. Multiplex PCR was optimised using the positive pathogenic E. coli strains namely, Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) and Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC). It was then employed in river water sample analysis and enabled the detection of EAEC, EHEC, and EIEC strains in Berg River system, with only the EAEC detected in the Plankenburg River system. Real-time PCR was used to optimise the multiplex PCR in the amplification of E. coli strains and successfully reduced the time to obtain final results when using control organisms. Real-time PCR was found to be more sensitive and time-effective in the identification of E. coli strains, and also more pronounced DNA bands were observed in real-time PCR products compared to conventional-multiplex PCR amplicons. To sustain the services provided by the Berg- and Plankenburg Rivers in the Western Cape (South Africa), these water sources should frequently be monitored, results assessed and reported according to the practices acknowledged by responsible bodies. It is therefore recommended that the enumeration techniques be used in conjunction with the very sensitive PCR technique for the accurate detection of coliforms and E. coli in river water samples.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 136-154) Aims to determine the effects of an outfall discharging secondarily treated wastewater effluent on benthic communities at Christies Beach with the specific objectives of: characterising the physical, biological and chemical environment of Gulf St Vincent and the study area region; ascertaining the extent to which effluent outfall has affected the macrobenthic infaunal community structure; characterising the structure of macrobenthic infaunal communities in the near shore water of the Adelaide metropolitan coast; and, determining the functional response through measurements of sediment community respiration to these changes.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 136-154) / xvii, 171 leaves ; ill. (some col.), maps ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Aims to determine the effects of an outfall discharging secondarily treated wastewater effluent on benthic communities at Christies Beach with the specific objectives of: characterising the physical, biological and chemical environment of Gulf St Vincent and the study area region; ascertaining the extent to which effluent outfall has affected the macrobenthic infaunal community structure; characterising the structure of macrobenthic infaunal communities in the near shore water of the Adelaide metropolitan coast; and, determining the functional response through measurements of sediment community respiration to these changes. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Environmental Biology, 2001

À l’heure actuelle, l’Arctique fait face à d’importantes menaces environnementales, qui risquent, en raison de sa précarité singulière, d’affecter son écosystème ainsi que ses communautés locales. Alors que ces problèmes posent des défis uniques de gestion, des solutions existent, mais sont peu efficaces. Aux échelles internationale, régionale, subrégionale, bilatérale ou nationale, le milieu marin arctique fait l’objet de plusieurs instruments de droit dur et de droit mou, qui présentent des lacunes. Face à ces enjeux, la question de la gouvernance du milieu marin arctique est devenue incontournable. Équilibrer le besoin de protéger le milieu marin arctique, son écosystème et ses habitants d’une part, et les impératifs économiques d’exploitation des ressources et d’augmentation du niveau de vie de l’autre, est nécessaire. Pour ce faire, la protection du milieu marin arctique doit (1) proposer un instrument qui inclut mécanismes de mise en œuvre et de conformité, flexibilité, précision et profondeur, et transparence et responsabilité ; (2) être pensée en terme de continuum et de complémentarité des différents niveaux de gouvernance plutôt qu’en isolant les différents paliers de gouvernance ; (3) privilégier un complexe de régimes internationaux ; (4) inclure une pléthore d’acteurs dans la gouvernance et (5) établir des aires marines protégées reconnaissant les concepts d’une gestion axée sur les écosystèmes en respectant des principes propres à la science environnementale. De cette façon, un équilibre entre les besoins environnementaux, sociaux et économiques et une gouvernance efficace pourront être atteints. / The Arctic is currently facing significant environmental threats. Yet, because of its particular precariousness, those threats will possibly impact its ecosystem and local communities. As those problems are posing unique management challenges, some solutions have been put in place, but are not really effective. In order to protect the arctic marine environment, several hard law and soft law instruments have been set at the international, regional, subregional, bilateral and national scales, but they are all facing serious shortcomings. The question of arctic marine environmental governance has therefore become inevitable in addressing those issues. The needs to protect the arctic marine environment, its ecosystem and inhabitants and the economic imperatives of resources exploitation and economic growth have to be balanced. Thus, arctic marine environmental protection has to (1) put forth an instrument with more implementation and conformity mechanisms, with more flexibility, more precision and depth, and more transparence and accountability; (2) be thought in terms of continuum and synergies of the different levels of governance instead of approaching them separately; (3) put forward an international regimes complex; (4) include a plethora of actors in the governance system and (5) establish marine protected areas that recognize the concepts of ecosystem-based management and respect some environmental principles. In this way, equilibrium between environmental, social and economical needs and effectiveness in governance will be reached.