Nostalgia is a psychological phenomenon we all can relate to but have a hard time to define. What characterizes the mental state of feeling nostalgia? What psychological function does it serve? Different published materials in a wide range of fields, from consumption research and sport science to clinical psychology, psychoanalysis and sociology, all have slightly different definition of this mental experience. Some claim it is a psychiatric disease giving melancholic emotions to a memory you would consider a happy one, while others state it enforces positivity in our mood. First in this paper a thorough review of the history of nostalgia is presented, then a look at the body of contemporary nostalgia research to see what it could be constituted of. Finally, we want to dig even deeper to see what is suggested by the literature in terms of triggers and functions. Some say that digitally recorded material like music and videos has a potential nostalgic component, which could trigger a reflection of the past in ways that was difficult before such inventions. Hinting towards that nostalgia as a cultural phenomenon is on a rising scene. Some authors say that odors have the strongest impact on nostalgic reverie due to activating it without too much cognitive appraisal. Cognitive neuropsychology has shed new light on a lot of human psychological phenomena‘s and even though empirical testing have been scarce in this field, it should get a fair scrutiny within this perspective as well and hopefully helping to clarify the definition of the word to ease future investigations, both scientifically speaking and in laymen‘s retro hysteria.Keywords:

<p>This dissertation argues for a version of democratic theory, and institutions of democratic practice, that would call for and help to nurture a form of civic identity--individual and collective--committed to a "work of mourning" over the historical and enduring traumas surrounding racial discrimination and violence in the United States. By a reading of psychoanalytic theory in conversation with political and social theory, I show that mourning should be considered less as a limited response to particular loss--one that will resolve itself after a certain lapse of time--than as a process of identity formation through recognition of, and reflection on, formative traumas in the democratic polity. Using the work of Melanie Klein in particular, I argue that the work of mourning not only implies the working through of mundane losses and traumas, but the development of a certain identity (in what Klein calls the "depressive position") that is sensitive to the larger scenes of persecution and violence that shape the social and political landscape. For Klein, mourning is ultimately the process of establishing internal objects that enrich the self's capacity to mitigate its hatred, fear, envy, and greed with reparative guilt and love. Klein's descriptions of inter-subjective mourning have relevance outside the comparatively narrow confines of the analytic situation. I argue that Klein's theories of mourning and identity can enhance collective efforts to address the traumas surrounding racial violence and discrimination in the United States. I illustrate this connection by examining the experience of the Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission (GTRC), which operated in Greensboro, North Carolina from 2004 to 2006.</p> / Dissertation

Conceptualizations of depression, this dissertation will demonstrate, are invariably structured by ontological presuppositions that constitute and define boundaries between individual and social, internal and external, body and mind, selfness and exterior, normal and pathological. Furthermore, the way in which these boundaries are set through the ontological ground underlying the modern bio-medical conception of depression are rooted in the history of Western philosophy, rather than corresponding to natural kinds discovered by neuro-medical science. Essentialist, internalist, and individualist assumptions arguably dominating contemporary practices regarding depression in Western medicine are not unavoidable and necessary, but are contingent symptoms of a certain ontological groundwork, that needs to be revealed and examined from a critical perspective to be able to deal effectively with possible deficiencies of the contemporary bio-medical model. In the following study, I focus on different historical conceptions that pathologise some altered form of affectivity that by contemporary lights we would associate with some manner of ‘depression’. These include Hippocrates’, Aristotle’s, Galen’s, and Burton’s conceptions of melancholia; Aquinas’ model of acedia; and the American Psychological Association’s Handbook (APA’s), Matthew Ratcliffe’s, and Thomas Fuchs’ accounts of depression. All these different ontologies are put through a categorical analysis consisting of six steps. In each step, each model is assessed regarding their positions between the two poles: melancholia/acedia/depression being (1) indigenous to the individual versus irreducibly social, (2) caused by internal versus external factors, (3) pathologised based on an individual versus a social dysfunction, (4) formed dependently versus independently in relation to personal characteristics, (5) defined as a bodily versus a mental phenomenon, (6) detached from versus entangled with the authentic self.

[pt] Para Gonçalves de Magalhães, Francisco de Sales Torres Homem e Manuel Araújo Porto-alegre, o Império do Brasil deveria ser civilizado, o que equivale a dizer que precisava superar seu modo de ser egoísta, e isto em favor do éthos do amor. Tratava-se, portanto, da superação da herança colonial mais radical, a saber, o costume de pensar e de agir a partir das inclinações, dos apetites, em detrimento dos interesses concernentes à comunidade ou à pátria. Os primeiros Românticos se dedicaram, então, à reorientação ética da boa sociedade, e isto a partir de uma atmosfera melancólica fundada na tensão entre pessimismo e desconfiança, por um lado, e otimismo e esperança por outro. Ora mais pessimistas, por vezes desesperados, ora mais otimistas, em relação à possibilidade de concretizar seu projeto civilizador, iam produzindo suas poesias e seus estudos sobre história e economia política a partir de uma dupla estratégia, a saber, seduzir seus leitores provocando-os à assunção do modo de ser do amor, e isto a despeito de uma decisão racional originária e, a um só tempo, fornecer lições úteis fundamentais à conquista do progresso moral e material da pátria, lições dedicadas, em especial, à demonstração lógica da necessidade de se abolir, imediatamente, a escravidão. / [en] For Gonçalves de Magalhães, Francisco de Sales Torres Homem and Manuel Araújo Porto Alegre, the Empire of Brazil should be civilized, that is to say he needed to overcome his way of being selfish, and that in favor of the éthos of love. It was, therefore, to overcome the colonial heritage more radical, namely the habit of thinking and acting from the inclinations, appetites, to the detriment of interests concerning the community or the nation. The early Romantics were dedicated, then the ethical reorientation of the good society, and this from a melancholic atmosphere based on the tension between pessimism and distrust on the one hand and optimism and hope for another. Now more pessimistic, sometimes desperate, sometimes more optimistic about the possibility of realizing their civilizing project, would produce his poetry and his studies of history and political economy from a two-pronged strategy, namely, to entice your readers causing them the assumption of how to be love, and this despite a rational decision originated, and at the same time, provide useful lessons fundamental to the achievement of moral and material progress of the nation, dedicated lessons, in particular, the logical demonstration the need to abolish immediately slavery.

A presente tese se organiza em torno da seguinte questão: o que caracteriza a expressão autobiográfica, narrativa, vocal e motora na depressão e seus subtipos melancólica e não-melancólica? A fim de investigar esta questão, foram realizados três estudos. O Estudo I investigou a relação entre diferentes dimensões do afeto (estado afetivo positivo/negativo, depressão e neuroticismo) e características do relato de eventos autobiográficos (especificidade e coerência narrativa de eventos). Nesse estudo, 78 estudantes universitários relataram por escrito três eventos autobiográficos e responderam aos instrumentos: 1) Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI); 2) Escala de Afetos Positivos e Negativos (PANAS); e 3) Escala Fatorial de Ajustamento Emocional/Neuroticismo (EFN). O Estudo II investigou a relação entre escore de depressão e variáveis verbais (prosódia e coerência narrativa), verificando também se existem diferenças no padrão prosódico-narrativo da depressão nãomelancólica e melancólica. Participaram 17 pacientes com diagnóstico de depressão, avaliados através dos seguintes instrumentos: 1) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus), 2) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D); 3) Beck Depression Inventory – BDI); 4) The CORE Assessment of Psychomotor Change, e 5) Relato verbal de três eventos de vida. O Estudo III teve como objetivo avaliar diferenças na atividade motora entre indivíduos com depressão melancólica e não-melancólica. A amostra foi composta por 15 pacientes com diagnóstico de depressão. A severidade dos sintomas depressivos foi avaliada utilizando a HAM-D e o BDI. O CORE foi utilizado para avaliar a melancolia, e a atividade motora foi mensurada através de actigrafia. Os resultados da tese sugerem uma revisão da noção de que afetos mais prolongados teriam maior impacto em variáveis narrativas, dado que o estado afetivo foi o único preditor da coerência narrativa. Concluiu-se que a recordação de eventos inespecíficos e a dificuldade de reavaliação de experiências constituem mecanismos basais na depressão, explicando a persistência de memórias dolorosas e crenças negativas inflexíveis. A melancolia caracterizou-se por uma diminuição na movimentação do corpo e na amplitude da frequência vocal, atestando a lentificação do movimento como um critério crucial para a identificação do subtipo melancólico de depressão. / This dissertation is organized around the following question: what characterizes the autobiographical narrative, vocal, and motor expression in depression and its melancholic and non-melancholic subtileza? In order to investigate this question, three studies were performed. Study I investigated the relationship between different dimensions of affect (positive and negative affective state, depression, and neuroticism) and some features of autobiographical narrative (specificity, and narrative coherence of events). In this study, 78 college students wrote three autobiographical events and answered to three instruments: 1) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 2) Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS); and 3) Factorial Scale of Neuroticism (EFN). Study II investigated: 1) the relationship between the depression score, and verbal variables (prosody and narrative coherence); and 2) differences in the prosodicnarrative pattern of individuals with non-melancholic and with melancholic depression. The sample consisted of 17 patients with major depressive disorder, who were assessed using the following instruments: 1) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus), 2) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), 3) Beck Depression Inventory - BDI), 4) The CORE Assessment of Psychomotor Change, and 5) Verbal report of three life events. Study III aimed to evaluate differences in motor activity between individuals with melancholic and non-melacholic depression. The sample was composed by 15 patients with diagnostic of major depressive episode. The measurement of the severity of depressive symptoms was made using the HAM-D and BDI. The CORE instrument was used to assess melancholia, and motor activity was measured by actigraphy. Altogether, the three studies that compose this dissertation suggest a revision of the notion that long lasting affects would have major impact on narrative variables, once the affective state was the only predictor of narrative coherence. We conclude that the recollection of nonspecific events and ressignification impairment are core mechanisms in depression, explaining the persistence of painful memories and inflexible negative beliefs. The melancholia was characterized by a decrease in body movement and amplitude of vocal frequency, confirming that lentification of movement is a crucial criteria for melancholic subtype of depression.

A presente tese se organiza em torno da seguinte questão: o que caracteriza a expressão autobiográfica, narrativa, vocal e motora na depressão e seus subtipos melancólica e não-melancólica? A fim de investigar esta questão, foram realizados três estudos. O Estudo I investigou a relação entre diferentes dimensões do afeto (estado afetivo positivo/negativo, depressão e neuroticismo) e características do relato de eventos autobiográficos (especificidade e coerência narrativa de eventos). Nesse estudo, 78 estudantes universitários relataram por escrito três eventos autobiográficos e responderam aos instrumentos: 1) Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI); 2) Escala de Afetos Positivos e Negativos (PANAS); e 3) Escala Fatorial de Ajustamento Emocional/Neuroticismo (EFN). O Estudo II investigou a relação entre escore de depressão e variáveis verbais (prosódia e coerência narrativa), verificando também se existem diferenças no padrão prosódico-narrativo da depressão nãomelancólica e melancólica. Participaram 17 pacientes com diagnóstico de depressão, avaliados através dos seguintes instrumentos: 1) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus), 2) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D); 3) Beck Depression Inventory – BDI); 4) The CORE Assessment of Psychomotor Change, e 5) Relato verbal de três eventos de vida. O Estudo III teve como objetivo avaliar diferenças na atividade motora entre indivíduos com depressão melancólica e não-melancólica. A amostra foi composta por 15 pacientes com diagnóstico de depressão. A severidade dos sintomas depressivos foi avaliada utilizando a HAM-D e o BDI. O CORE foi utilizado para avaliar a melancolia, e a atividade motora foi mensurada através de actigrafia. Os resultados da tese sugerem uma revisão da noção de que afetos mais prolongados teriam maior impacto em variáveis narrativas, dado que o estado afetivo foi o único preditor da coerência narrativa. Concluiu-se que a recordação de eventos inespecíficos e a dificuldade de reavaliação de experiências constituem mecanismos basais na depressão, explicando a persistência de memórias dolorosas e crenças negativas inflexíveis. A melancolia caracterizou-se por uma diminuição na movimentação do corpo e na amplitude da frequência vocal, atestando a lentificação do movimento como um critério crucial para a identificação do subtipo melancólico de depressão. / This dissertation is organized around the following question: what characterizes the autobiographical narrative, vocal, and motor expression in depression and its melancholic and non-melancholic subtileza? In order to investigate this question, three studies were performed. Study I investigated the relationship between different dimensions of affect (positive and negative affective state, depression, and neuroticism) and some features of autobiographical narrative (specificity, and narrative coherence of events). In this study, 78 college students wrote three autobiographical events and answered to three instruments: 1) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 2) Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS); and 3) Factorial Scale of Neuroticism (EFN). Study II investigated: 1) the relationship between the depression score, and verbal variables (prosody and narrative coherence); and 2) differences in the prosodicnarrative pattern of individuals with non-melancholic and with melancholic depression. The sample consisted of 17 patients with major depressive disorder, who were assessed using the following instruments: 1) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus), 2) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), 3) Beck Depression Inventory - BDI), 4) The CORE Assessment of Psychomotor Change, and 5) Verbal report of three life events. Study III aimed to evaluate differences in motor activity between individuals with melancholic and non-melacholic depression. The sample was composed by 15 patients with diagnostic of major depressive episode. The measurement of the severity of depressive symptoms was made using the HAM-D and BDI. The CORE instrument was used to assess melancholia, and motor activity was measured by actigraphy. Altogether, the three studies that compose this dissertation suggest a revision of the notion that long lasting affects would have major impact on narrative variables, once the affective state was the only predictor of narrative coherence. We conclude that the recollection of nonspecific events and ressignification impairment are core mechanisms in depression, explaining the persistence of painful memories and inflexible negative beliefs. The melancholia was characterized by a decrease in body movement and amplitude of vocal frequency, confirming that lentification of movement is a crucial criteria for melancholic subtype of depression.

A presente tese se organiza em torno da seguinte questão: o que caracteriza a expressão autobiográfica, narrativa, vocal e motora na depressão e seus subtipos melancólica e não-melancólica? A fim de investigar esta questão, foram realizados três estudos. O Estudo I investigou a relação entre diferentes dimensões do afeto (estado afetivo positivo/negativo, depressão e neuroticismo) e características do relato de eventos autobiográficos (especificidade e coerência narrativa de eventos). Nesse estudo, 78 estudantes universitários relataram por escrito três eventos autobiográficos e responderam aos instrumentos: 1) Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI); 2) Escala de Afetos Positivos e Negativos (PANAS); e 3) Escala Fatorial de Ajustamento Emocional/Neuroticismo (EFN). O Estudo II investigou a relação entre escore de depressão e variáveis verbais (prosódia e coerência narrativa), verificando também se existem diferenças no padrão prosódico-narrativo da depressão nãomelancólica e melancólica. Participaram 17 pacientes com diagnóstico de depressão, avaliados através dos seguintes instrumentos: 1) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus), 2) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D); 3) Beck Depression Inventory – BDI); 4) The CORE Assessment of Psychomotor Change, e 5) Relato verbal de três eventos de vida. O Estudo III teve como objetivo avaliar diferenças na atividade motora entre indivíduos com depressão melancólica e não-melancólica. A amostra foi composta por 15 pacientes com diagnóstico de depressão. A severidade dos sintomas depressivos foi avaliada utilizando a HAM-D e o BDI. O CORE foi utilizado para avaliar a melancolia, e a atividade motora foi mensurada através de actigrafia. Os resultados da tese sugerem uma revisão da noção de que afetos mais prolongados teriam maior impacto em variáveis narrativas, dado que o estado afetivo foi o único preditor da coerência narrativa. Concluiu-se que a recordação de eventos inespecíficos e a dificuldade de reavaliação de experiências constituem mecanismos basais na depressão, explicando a persistência de memórias dolorosas e crenças negativas inflexíveis. A melancolia caracterizou-se por uma diminuição na movimentação do corpo e na amplitude da frequência vocal, atestando a lentificação do movimento como um critério crucial para a identificação do subtipo melancólico de depressão. / This dissertation is organized around the following question: what characterizes the autobiographical narrative, vocal, and motor expression in depression and its melancholic and non-melancholic subtileza? In order to investigate this question, three studies were performed. Study I investigated the relationship between different dimensions of affect (positive and negative affective state, depression, and neuroticism) and some features of autobiographical narrative (specificity, and narrative coherence of events). In this study, 78 college students wrote three autobiographical events and answered to three instruments: 1) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 2) Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS); and 3) Factorial Scale of Neuroticism (EFN). Study II investigated: 1) the relationship between the depression score, and verbal variables (prosody and narrative coherence); and 2) differences in the prosodicnarrative pattern of individuals with non-melancholic and with melancholic depression. The sample consisted of 17 patients with major depressive disorder, who were assessed using the following instruments: 1) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus), 2) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), 3) Beck Depression Inventory - BDI), 4) The CORE Assessment of Psychomotor Change, and 5) Verbal report of three life events. Study III aimed to evaluate differences in motor activity between individuals with melancholic and non-melacholic depression. The sample was composed by 15 patients with diagnostic of major depressive episode. The measurement of the severity of depressive symptoms was made using the HAM-D and BDI. The CORE instrument was used to assess melancholia, and motor activity was measured by actigraphy. Altogether, the three studies that compose this dissertation suggest a revision of the notion that long lasting affects would have major impact on narrative variables, once the affective state was the only predictor of narrative coherence. We conclude that the recollection of nonspecific events and ressignification impairment are core mechanisms in depression, explaining the persistence of painful memories and inflexible negative beliefs. The melancholia was characterized by a decrease in body movement and amplitude of vocal frequency, confirming that lentification of movement is a crucial criteria for melancholic subtype of depression.

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This study argues that religious orders in early modern Spain developed informal sets of procedures to handle the consequences of melancholia in their communities. It also argues that three influential members of these orders, San Ignacio de Loyola of the Jesuits, and San Teresa de Avila and San Juan de la Cruz of the Discalced Carmelites, tailored these protocols according to their own private concerns and experience with the disease. The changing discourse surrounding melancholia and similar diseases during the early modern period, alongside the unique environmental concerns of these newly founded orders, created a need for new methods of dealing with the disruptions caused by melancholic members of the clergy. These solutions formed out of the immediate needs within each order, but ultimately defined the relationship between melancholic brothers and sisters and their communities.

This thesis interpolates medieval and modern authors and theorists, namely Dante, Petrarch, and Proust on the one hand, and Freud, Kristeva, and Derrida on the other. I propose that these writers are intimately connected and differentiated by their meditations on grief and loss. I compare, confront, and contrast these narratives of mourning in a discursive shuttling to and fro between medieval and modern, French and Italian, and literature and theory, in order to delineate the specificities of different forms of melancholia as legible in Dante’s Commedia, Petrarch’s Canzoniere, and Proust’s A la recherche du temps perdu, and as illuminated by Freudian melancholia, Kristeva’s Soleil noir, and Derrida’s concept of ‘demi-deuil’. I challenge the homogeny of the modern concept of melancholia and juxtapose it with the medieval sin of acedia in Dante (Inferno VII) and Petrarch (considering both the Secretum and the Canzoniere). From the examples of the treatment of the myth of Orpheus and the book of Lamentations, I argue that discourses of mourning are trapped in a fruitful tension between a desire for uniqueness or originality and a desire for legibility or the comfort of communality. In Girardian terms, I define literary representations of mourning as ‘mimetic’, that is, caught in a web of intertextual imitation and preoccupations of genre and tradition which are at odds with a quest for new forms of writing. Finally, I contend that the relationship between content and form is particularly close in grief-stricken texts, and characterise my chosen primary texts – including Dante’s Vita nuova – according to the twin poles of endlessness (which I equate with melancholia) and finitude (the teleological, closed nature of the work of mourning), with a Derridean alternative of unstable oscillation between the two (‘demi-deuil’).