Este trabalho analisa, de acordo com as premissas teórico-metodológicas da Sociolinguística Variacionista (Labov 1972:[2008]), como se dá a concordância nominal de número (CN) na fala de alagoanos estabelecidos na cidade de São Paulo, em comparação com a fala de paulistanos. A análise multivariada é feita com as ocorrências de sintagmas nominais simples (constituídos de dois elementos), como as pessoa-s/ø. O objetivo principal é verificar quais são os fatores linguísticos e sociais que concorrem para a realização da CN nesses dois subgrupos de falantes. Os dados foram extraídos de 24 entrevistas sociolinguísticas com paulistanos e 24 com alagoanos que vivem na capital paulista. Ambas subamostras são definidas pelas mesmas variáveis sociais: sexo/gênero, faixas etárias e escolaridade. Os resultados indicam que a taxa de não realização da concordância (CN-Ø) entre alagoanos e paulistanos é praticamente a mesma. Em ambas as subamostras, os fatores sociais mostraram-se mais significativos, uma vez que todos foram selecionados para os dois grupos de falantes, com os maiores ranges. As mulheres são as mais sensíveis à variante de prestígio; no entanto, as alagoanas apresentam percentual um pouco maior de CN-Ø (23%) do que as paulistanas (17%). Não há indicativo de mudança em progresso: em ambos os subgrupos, a segunda faixa etária é a que desfavorece CN-Ø. Já para escolaridade, trata-se de um grupo de fatores mais significativo para paulistanos do que para alagoanos. Quanto aos fatores linguísticos, Classe de palavra do elemento nuclear, Processo de formação de plural do elemento nuclear e Número de sílaba do elemento não-nuclear se mostraram mais significativos. Da perspectiva da concordância nominal de número, esta dissertação mostra que alagoanos e paulistanos se assemelham mais do que se diferenciam. Nesse sentido, pode ser que façam parte de uma mesma comunidade de fala (Labov 1972 [2008]), 1996 [2006], Guy 1981 mas isso só poderá ser confirmado por estudos futuros, que se dedicarem a outras variáveis na fala destes e de outros grupos de falantes migrantes para a cidade de São Paulo. / Within the framework of variationist Sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972 [2008]), this master thesis analyzes variable number agreement within the nominal phrase (NP), in the Portuguese spoken in the city of São Paulo by Alagoanos (migrants from the northeastern state of Alagoas) and by Paulistanos (those born and raised in the city). The multivariate analysis focuses on two-word plural NPs, such as as pessoas/ø the persons. The main goal is to verify what linguistic and social factors condition the variable in use, in a comparison between these two groups of speakers. The data was extracted from 24 sociolinguistic interviews with Alagoanos and 24 with Paulistanos. Both samples are stratified by the same social variables: sex/gender, age group and level of education. Results indicate that the frequency of CN-Ø (that is, lack of agreement) is approximately the same for both groups of speakers. In both, social factors are more significant than linguistic factors, since all of the social ones included in the analysis were selected as statistically significant. Women disfavor CN-Ø (a generally stigmatized form), although the agreement is more frequent among Alagoanas than among Paulistanas. Theres no indication of change in progress: for both groups of speakers, the intermediate age group disfavors CN-Ø. As for level of education, it is more significant for Paulistanos than for Alagoanos. Among the linguistic factors, the class of the nuclear word, the morphology of plural, and the number of syllables of the NP left element were the ones selected as statistically significant This thesis shows that, from the perspective of number agreement within the NP, Alagoanos and Paulistanos are more similar than different. Therefore, they could be part of a same speech community (Labov 1972 [2008], Guy 1981) in the city something that should be discussed by further research, including other linguistic variables and groups of speakers.

Este trabalho analisa, de acordo com as premissas teórico-metodológicas da Sociolinguística Variacionista (Labov 1972:[2008]), como se dá a concordância nominal de número (CN) na fala de alagoanos estabelecidos na cidade de São Paulo, em comparação com a fala de paulistanos. A análise multivariada é feita com as ocorrências de sintagmas nominais simples (constituídos de dois elementos), como as pessoa-s/ø. O objetivo principal é verificar quais são os fatores linguísticos e sociais que concorrem para a realização da CN nesses dois subgrupos de falantes. Os dados foram extraídos de 24 entrevistas sociolinguísticas com paulistanos e 24 com alagoanos que vivem na capital paulista. Ambas subamostras são definidas pelas mesmas variáveis sociais: sexo/gênero, faixas etárias e escolaridade. Os resultados indicam que a taxa de não realização da concordância (CN-Ø) entre alagoanos e paulistanos é praticamente a mesma. Em ambas as subamostras, os fatores sociais mostraram-se mais significativos, uma vez que todos foram selecionados para os dois grupos de falantes, com os maiores ranges. As mulheres são as mais sensíveis à variante de prestígio; no entanto, as alagoanas apresentam percentual um pouco maior de CN-Ø (23%) do que as paulistanas (17%). Não há indicativo de mudança em progresso: em ambos os subgrupos, a segunda faixa etária é a que desfavorece CN-Ø. Já para escolaridade, trata-se de um grupo de fatores mais significativo para paulistanos do que para alagoanos. Quanto aos fatores linguísticos, Classe de palavra do elemento nuclear, Processo de formação de plural do elemento nuclear e Número de sílaba do elemento não-nuclear se mostraram mais significativos. Da perspectiva da concordância nominal de número, esta dissertação mostra que alagoanos e paulistanos se assemelham mais do que se diferenciam. Nesse sentido, pode ser que façam parte de uma mesma comunidade de fala (Labov 1972 [2008]), 1996 [2006], Guy 1981 mas isso só poderá ser confirmado por estudos futuros, que se dedicarem a outras variáveis na fala destes e de outros grupos de falantes migrantes para a cidade de São Paulo. / Within the framework of variationist Sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972 [2008]), this master thesis analyzes variable number agreement within the nominal phrase (NP), in the Portuguese spoken in the city of São Paulo by Alagoanos (migrants from the northeastern state of Alagoas) and by Paulistanos (those born and raised in the city). The multivariate analysis focuses on two-word plural NPs, such as as pessoas/ø the persons. The main goal is to verify what linguistic and social factors condition the variable in use, in a comparison between these two groups of speakers. The data was extracted from 24 sociolinguistic interviews with Alagoanos and 24 with Paulistanos. Both samples are stratified by the same social variables: sex/gender, age group and level of education. Results indicate that the frequency of CN-Ø (that is, lack of agreement) is approximately the same for both groups of speakers. In both, social factors are more significant than linguistic factors, since all of the social ones included in the analysis were selected as statistically significant. Women disfavor CN-Ø (a generally stigmatized form), although the agreement is more frequent among Alagoanas than among Paulistanas. Theres no indication of change in progress: for both groups of speakers, the intermediate age group disfavors CN-Ø. As for level of education, it is more significant for Paulistanos than for Alagoanos. Among the linguistic factors, the class of the nuclear word, the morphology of plural, and the number of syllables of the NP left element were the ones selected as statistically significant This thesis shows that, from the perspective of number agreement within the NP, Alagoanos and Paulistanos are more similar than different. Therefore, they could be part of a same speech community (Labov 1972 [2008], Guy 1981) in the city something that should be discussed by further research, including other linguistic variables and groups of speakers.

Number is a grammatical category found in nearly every language around the world (Corbett, 2000). The syntactic expression of number is referred to as grammatical number. In English and French, two number categories are in use: singular and plural. Nouns that are written more frequently in their singular form are called singular-dominant, while those that are written more frequently in their plural form are called plural-dominant. Several lexical decision and picture naming studies have found that grammatical number and noun dominance interact, resulting in a surface frequency effect for singular-dominant nouns only. Singular-dominant nouns are recognized/named significantly faster in their singular form than in their plural form, while plural-dominant nouns are recognized/named equally fast in both forms (e.g., Baayen, Burani, & Schreuder, 1997; Biedermann, Beyersmann, Mason, & Nickels, 2013; Domínguez, Cuetos, & Segui, 1999; New, Brysbaert, Segui, Ferrand, & Rastle, 2004; Reifegerste, Meyer, & Zwitserlood, 2017). The objective of this thesis is to extend our understanding of the singular-dominant noun surface frequency effect in English and French by adopting three procedures. First, advanced linear mixed modelling techniques were used to improve statistical power and accuracy. Second, the noun dominance ratio technique (Reifegerste et al., 2017) was applied to investigate whether the surface frequency effect remains significant when noun dominance was treated as a continuous variable. Third, a determiner-noun number agreement task was created to determine whether the surface frequency effect could be reproduced in a novel task. Three studies were conducted. In Study 1, two lexical decision tasks (LDTs) were conducted. Results revealed that in both English and French, singular nouns were recognized faster than plural nouns while the noun dominance effect was non-significant. The interaction between grammatical number and noun dominance was significant in French and marginally so in English. The interaction pattern was identical in both languages, singular-dominant nouns demonstrated a surface frequency effect while plural nouns did not. In Study 2, three determiner-noun number agreement tasks (NATs) were conducted. Results revealed that in both English and French, plural nouns were recognized faster than singular nouns. No other effects were significant. Incorporating irregular singular nouns (e.g., bonus) and plural nouns (e.g., mice) as foils produced the same results. In Study 3, two LDTs and one NAT were conducted. Lexical decision results revealed that in both English and French, singular nouns were recognized faster than plural nouns. However, the effects of noun collectivity and animacy were significant in English only; non-collective nouns were recognized faster than collective nouns while inanimate nouns were recognized faster than animate nouns. Number agreement results revealed that in English, plural nouns were recognized faster than singular nouns; no other effects reached significance. Taken together, my studies confirm that a strong surface frequency effect exists during visual word recognition for singular-dominant nouns. However, the surface frequency effect does not extend to the formation determiner-noun number agreement decisions, which were influenced nearly exclusively by grammatical number.

This study concerns simultaneous bilingual acquisition (2L1) of Swedish-Brazilian children growing up in mixed-lingual families in Stockholm, with Swedish as their dominant language. Earlier studies on this language combination were not found. Not even were there any studies considering 2L1 children of the same age group as our main subjects (Anna 7;7,3–9;1,30, Maria 6;1,16–6;11,11). An analysis of their acquisition of Brazilian Portuguese (BP) as a weaker language (WL) was carried out in a Generative Grammar approach, mainly through the selective theory of language acquisition. The corpus consists of interviews with 2L1 children in a semi-longitudinal registration of their production. The focus of this analysis lies on the observation of three domains of BP grammar that differ morpho-syntactically from Swedish: verb inflection; VP as minimal responses; NP number and gender agreement. Three main research questions were formulated: 1) Are the simple and robust structures, provided by domestic input enough for triggering the functional categories (FC) of their WL? 2) If the FCs are activated, do they develop in the same sequence as a WL as they would in BPL1? 3) If the 2L1 children show any deviations in acquiring the grammar of their WL, is it possible to distinguish any influence from Swedish? To answer these questions a contrastive study was carried out, comparing the acquisition of BPWL with studies on 2L1 and BPL1 acquisition. The results show that the domestic input is enough for triggering the grammar of the WL, and that it was triggered and developed through a similar procedure to that of BPL1, although delayed. Contact with BPL1 input in Brazil was necessary to activate the children’s oral production. When using VPs for minimal responses it requires more than domestic input, and the influence of Swedish was reflected in the subjects’ use of sim ‘yes’ instead of VPs, as in this case grammar enters the domain of discourse at the syntax/pragmatics interface.

Submitted by Ricardo Cedraz Duque Moliterno (ricardo.moliterno@uefs.br) on 2018-02-01T22:24:19Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Disserta??o - Lory 22.05 NOVO (2).pdf: 9859593 bytes, checksum: 3d3161f2a0d5a78e1ed82c9d18b4dfb9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-01T22:24:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Disserta??o - Lory 22.05 NOVO (2).pdf: 9859593 bytes, checksum: 3d3161f2a0d5a78e1ed82c9d18b4dfb9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-15 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES / This dissertation undertakes an analysis of variation in number agreement in the noun phrase in 91 personal letters, edited by Santiago (2012), written between 1906 and 2000 by semi-literate Bahian inlanders, defined as "unskilled" (MARQUILHAS, 2000). It is a very rare type of documentation, offering indications of the popular variant of Brazilian Portuguese (BP). The research takes as the theoretical scope the Historical Linguistics stricto senso, in the terms defined by Mattos and Silva (2008) and the Labovian Sociolinguistics (LABOV, 1972), for whom the change must be explained not only by internal arguments to the system, but also by the external. From the analysis of the data, the linguistic and social factors that most conditioned the variation were identified, from two perspectives: the syntagmatic and the atomistic. In addition, we verified if the linguistic behavior of the writers of the letters that integrate the corpus in question present similarities and/or divergences with the results of previous works about this subject in the popular BP, in oral and written corpus, and in the acquisition of agreement. The results showed that the strategies most used by unskilled scribes regarding to the realization of the plurality marks in the NP are close to both the popular BP variants and to the constructs found in acquisition studies. The linguistic study carried out here may contribute to the characterization of the spoken language in the semi-arid region of Bahia, collaborating in general for the study of popular Portuguese in Brazil and, more specifically, in the rural Portuguese of Bahia. / Esta disserta??o faz uma an?lise da varia??o da concord?ncia de n?mero no sintagma nominalem 91 cartas pessoais, editadas por Santiago (2012), escritas entre 1906 e 2000 por sertanejos baianossemialfabetizados, definidos como ?in?beis? (MARQUILHAS, 2000). Trata-se de um tipo de documenta??o bastante rara, oferecendo ind?cios da variante popular do portugu?s brasileiro (PB). A pesquisa toma como escopo te?rico a Lingu?stica Hist?rica stricto senso, nos termos definidos por Mattos e Silva (2008) e a Sociolingu?stica Laboviana (LABOV, 1972), para quem a mudan?a deve ser explicada n?o somente por argumentos internos ao sistema, mas tamb?m pelos externos. A partir da an?lise dos dados, foram identificados os fatores lingu?sticos e sociais que mais condicionam a sua varia??o, sob duas perspectivas: a sintagm?tica e a atom?stica. Al?m disso, verificamos se o comportamento lingu?stico dos redatores das cartas que comp?em o corpus em quest?o apresenta semelhan?as e/ou diverg?ncias com resultados de trabalhos antecedentes em torno dessa tem?tica no PB popular, em corpus oral e escrito, e na aquisi??o de concord?ncia. Os resultados demonstraram que as estrat?gias mais usadas pelos escreventes in?beis, no que diz respeito ? realiza??o das marcas de pluralidade no SN, est?o pr?ximas tanto ?s variantes populares do PB,como ?s constru??es encontradas em estudos sobre aquisi??o. O estudo lingu?stico aqui realizado poder? contribuir, portanto, para a caracteriza??o da l?ngua falada na regi?o semi?rida da Bahia, colaborando, de um modo geral, para o estudo do portugu?s popular do Brasil e, mais especificamente, do portugu?s rural baiano.

[pt] Esta tese investiga como as crianças que vivem no Rio de Janeiro (Rio) lidam com input variável no que concerne às marcas morfofonológicas de concordância de número em Português Brasileiro (PB). Em PB, o plural pode ser expresso apenas no determinante (D) (não-redundante, variedade não-padrão) ou em todos os elementos que concordam com D (redundante, variedade padrão). O grau de variação é influenciado pelo nível de escolaridade e pelo nível socioeconômico (NSE) do falante: quanto mais escolarizado o falante é, mais marcas de plural são produzidas (NARO, 1981; NARO; SCHERRE, 2015; SCHERRE; NARO, 1998). O Rio é um ambiente de contato entre variedades, já que pessoas de diferentes NSE interagem cotidianamente. Sugere-se que input variável resulta em aquisição e representação de traços morfofonológicos pertinentes à expressão da redundância da concordância de número plural subespecificados (cf. ROORYCK, 1994) no léxico. Assume-se que a gradual especificação dessas informações depende de fatores sociais, o que pode acarretar uma espécie de bilinguismo. Um experimento de produção induzida por repetição foi conduzido com crianças em idade pré- escolar de escolas pública e particular, no qual possíveis combinações de concordância foram manipuladas a fim de verificar se há diferença entre a performance dos dois grupos, uma vez que tipo de escola é tomado como variável social (ALVES; SOARES; XAVIER, 2014). Os resultados demonstram que ambos os grupos apresentam variação, mas diferem na produção das variedades não- padrão: Pub apresenta respostas não-padrão com mais frequência que Priv. No momento da codificação morfofonológica, na produção da linguagem, o acesso aos morfemas armazenados em uma espécie de Pool of Variants (ADGER, 2007), sofreria influência de fatores sociais e de frequência (LEVELT, 1999). A marca de plural obrigatória no determinante é explicada pelo viés sintático e pelo viés do processamento via um modelo de computação online para a produção da linguagem (CORRÊA; AUGUSTO, 2007, 2011), assumindo transferência para as interfaces em fases (CHESI, 2007) e que o DP em PB possui duas fases (PICALLO, 2017). O efeito de escolaridade na variação da concordância de número é verificado com dados de crianças do 6º ano de escolas pública e particular também no subúrbio do Rio. Os resultados mostram um efeito de tipo de escola/SES, em que Priv produz respostas padrão mais frequentemente que Pub. Além disso, foi verificado um efeito de desempenho escolar com os alunos de 6º ano de uma mesma escola pública: Pub A (bom desempenho acadêmico) é menos sujeito à variação do que Pub B (desempenho escolar regular). De maneira geral, os resultados do 6º ano indicam interação entre NSE e desempenho escolar em um continuum gradiente de produção de concordância de número: Priv > Pub A > Pub B. Adicionalmente, um teste de habilidades linguísticas (MABILIN II (CORRÊA, 2000)) buscou verificar habilidades dos alunos de 6º ano em extrair informação de número gramaticalmente relevante na compreensão e na produção do PB pelo grupo Pub B, visto que este grupo do 6º ano apresentou performance similar ao grupo de pré-escolares da escola pública, apesar da diferença de idade entre os dois grupos. Os resultados dos experimentos são discutidos em termos de um contexto bi/multilíngue: a) falantes de PB adquirem as duas variedades simultaneamente, como na aquisição bilíngue simultânea (MEISEL, 1994); b) um bom desempenho escolar pode melhorar a consciência metalinguística do falante, permitindo code-switching entre as variedades, dependendo do nível de proficiência em cada uma delas (CRAIG; WASHINGTON, 2004); c) um bom desempenho escolar e NSE alto podem resultar em uma espécie de bilinguismo passivo ou bidialetalismo passivo em relação às formas não-redundantes (see CORNIPS, 2014). Por fim, os resultados são discutidos em termos de um continuum multilíngue, caracterizado, em um extremo, como uma gramática subespecificada e, em outro, duas gramáticas separadas, acessadas de maneira independente. Esta tese, portanto, está inserida em um campo interdisciplinar com vistas a conciliar sociolinguística, psicolinguística e teorias linguísticas formais. / [en] This thesis investigates how children growing up in Rio de Janeiro city (Rio) deal with variable input regarding the morphophonological expression of number agreement in Brazilian Portuguese (BP). Plural in BP may be expressed only in the determiner (non-redundant, non-standard variety) or in all agreeing elements (redundant, standard variety). The level of variation is influenced by social factors such as level of education and socioeconomic status (SES): the more educated the speaker is, the more redundancy is morphologically expressed (NARO, 1981; NARO; SCHERRE, 2015; SCHERRE; NARO, 1998). In Rio, these varieties co- exist, given that people from different SES interact on a daily basis. It is proposed that exposure to variable input yields underspecification (ADGER, 2006; ADGER; SMITH, 2010). In the case of number agreement in BP, it is suggested that variation results in underspecification (see ROORYCK, 1994) of morphophonological features in the lexicon pertaining to plural agreement redundancy. We hypothesize that there is a level of bilingualism regulated by SES in number agreement in BP: gradual specification of morphophonological information is dependent on social factors, resulting in a sort of bilingualism. An elicited production task was carried out with preschoolers, from both private (Priv) and public (Pub) schools in Rio’s suburban area, in order to verify whether preschoolers exhibit preference for any of the morphophonological expressions of number agreement; type of school is taken as a social variable (ALVES; SOARES; XAVIER, 2014). Results show that preschoolers exhibit a considerable level of variation. However, they differ in terms of production of non-standard varieties, being Pub more likely to produce non- standard forms than Priv. It is argued that during morphophonological encoding in language production, the access to morphemes stored in a Pool of Variants (ADGER, 2007) becomes subject to frequency (LEVELT, 1999) and influence of social factors. Obligatory plural marking in the determiner is explained both from the perspective of language knowledge and its representation and from an online computational model for language production (CORRÊA; AUGUSTO, 2007, 2011), assuming a two-phase DP (PICALLO, 2017) which is phase-based transferred (CHESI, 2007) to morphophonological encoding. The effect of schooling/ literacy in number agreement variation is also verified with Priv and Pub 6th graders. Results show an effect of type of school/ SES in which Priv produces more standard responses than Pub. Additionally, an effect of overall academic performance was obtained among Pub 6th graders from the same school: Pub A (above-average academic performance) are less subject to variation than Pub B (below-average academic performance). Overall, 6th graders results show that academic performance and SES interact in a gradient continuum of number agreement redundancy production: Priv > Pub A > Pub B. Furthermore, a test of assessment of linguistic abilities regarding number agreement, MABILIN II (CORRÊA, 2000), verified whether Pub B 6th graders are able to process grammatical information pertaining to number, given that their performance was similar to Pub preschoolers, despite their age difference. Preschoolers and 6th graders results are discussed in terms of bi/multilingual-like contexts: a) BP speakers acquire both varieties simultaneously, as in Bilingual First Language Acquisition (MEISEL, 1994); b) Good academic performance may enhance metalinguistic awareness allowing for code-switching depending on the level of proficiency in one of the varieties (CRAIG; WASHINGTON, 2004); c) good academic performance and higher SES may result in a sort of passive bilingualism or passive bidialectalism regarding the non-standard forms (see CORNIPS, 2014). Finally, preschoolers and 6th graders results are discussed in terms of a multilingual continuum, characterized as underspecification as variation within one grammar in one extreme to access to different, independent specified grammars in another extreme. More broadly, this thesis is inserted in an interdisciplinary field, combining sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and theoretical formal linguistics.