Cancer has become one of the leading causes of death today. The early detection of cancer may lead to desired therapeutic management of cancer and to decrease the mortality rate through effective therapeutic strategies. Advances in materials science have enabled the use of nanoparticles for added contrast in various imaging techniques. More recently there has been much interest in the use of gold nanoparticles as optical contrast agents because of their strong absorption and scattering properties at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. Highly proliferative cancer cells overexpress molecular markers such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). When specifically targeted gold nanoparticles bind to EGFR they tend to cluster thus leading to an optical red-shift of the plasmon resonances and an increase in absorption in the red region. These changes in optical properties provide the foundation for photoacoustic imaging technique to differentiate cancer cells from surrounding benign cells. In photoacoustic imaging, contrast mechanism is based on the optical absorption properties of the tissue constituents. Studies were performed on tissue phantoms, ex-vivo and in-vivo tumor models to evaluate molecular specific photoacoustic imaging technique. The results indicate that highly sensitive and selective detection of cancer cells can be achieved by utilizing the plasmon resonance coupling effect of EGFR targeted gold nanoparticles and photoacoustic imaging. In conclusion, the combined ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging technique has the ability to image molecular signature of cancer using bioconjugated gold nanoparticles. / text

Current methods to diagnose and treat cancer often involve expensive, time-consuming equipment and materials that may lead to unwanted side effects and may not even increase a patient’s chance of survival. Thus, for a while now, a large part of the research community has focused on developing improved methods to detect, diagnose, and treat cancer on the molecular scale. One of the most recently discovered methods of cancer therapy is targeted therapy. These targeted therapies have potential to provide a patient with a form of personalized medicine because these therapies are biological molecules that specifically target other molecules involved with a cancer’s growth. Past trials using these therapeutic molecules, however, have led to controversial results, where certain patients responded better than others to the therapy for unknown reasons. Elucidating the reason behind these mixed results can be accomplished using metal nanoparticle technologies which could provide a bright signal to monitor the path that these therapeutic molecules take in vivo as well as enhance the molecule’s efficacy. Literature has shown that presenting targeting molecules in a dense manner to their target will increase these molecules’ binding affinity. This concept has been explored here to increase binding affinity of therapeutic molecules by attaching these molecules in a dense manner on the surface of gold nanoparticles, and correlating this increased affinity with therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, gold nanoparticles provide an easy surface for molecules to be functionalized on and have shown to be effective imaging, x-ray, and photothermal therapy agents. A major roadblock to using these gold nanoparticles clinically is their non-degradability and thus potential to cause long-term negative side effects in vivo. A platform for developing biodegradable gold nanoparticles is also explored here to take advantage of the gold nanoparticles’ excellent imaging and drug delivery capabilities while still allowing them to be used safely in the long term. / text

Gold nanoparticles attain an intense focus in biomedical imaging applications due to their unique optical properties, facile conjugation with biomolecules, and biocompatibility. Although a considerable amount of work towards the development of gold nanoparticles has been completed, these promising contrast agents have not yet reached the clinic due to several challenges including efficient accumulation at the diseased site, sensitivity of detection in vivo, potential adverse effects, and clearance from the body. High signal-to-background ratio is required to enhance sensitivity of detection. Because near infrared (near-IR) light has the best tissue penetration, contrast agents designed to work in this range can significantly increase imaging sensitivity. Moreover, efficient targeting of the molecular biomarkers on diseased cells can decrease the required dosage, increase the site-specific accumulation, and enhance the imaging sensitivity. Molecular-specific contrast agents developed in this project use directional attachment of antibody molecules to the nanoparticle surface, enhancing the targeting efficacy. Additionally, cell-based delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents is gaining much interest due to the immune cells’ special access to the avascular, diseased regions. The contrast agents developed in this project enable detection of just a few cells per unit of imaging volume, enable multiplex imaging, and open up a possibility for tracking different cell populations with noninvasive photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging. Finally, the clearance of nanoparticles from the body dictates their clinical translation. The in vivo pharmacokinetics study along with the proposed in vitro model explored in this project will enable fast, reliable, and cost-efficient screening of promising agents and facilitate quick optimization of nanoparticles for their potential use in the clinic. / text

Rupture of atherosclerotic plaque is closely related to plaque composition. Currently, plaque composition cannot be clinically characterized by any imaging modality. The objective of this dissertation is to use a recently developed imaging modality – ultrasound-guided intravascular photoacoustic (IVPA) imaging – to detect the distribution of two critical components in atherosclerotic plaques: lipid and phagocytically active macrophages. Under the guidance of intravascular ultrasound imaging, spectroscopic IVPA imaging is capable of detecting the spatially resolving optical absorption property inside a vessel wall. In this study, contrast in spectroscopic IVPA imaging was provided by either the endogenous optical property of lipid or optically absorbing contrast agent such as gold nanoparticles (Au NPs). Using a rabbit model of atherosclerosis, this dissertation demonstrated that ultrasound guided spectroscopic IVPA imaging could simultaneously image lipid deposits as well as macrophages labeled in vivo with Au NPs. Information of macrophage activity around lipid rich plaques may help to identify rupture-prone or vulnerable plaques. The results show that ultrasound guided IVPA imaging is promising for detecting plaque composition in vivo. Clinical use of ultrasound guided IVPA imaging may significantly improve the accuracy of diagnosis and lead to more effective treatments of atherosclerosis. / text

Nanopartículas de ouro têm mostrado enorme potencial de aplicação em modalidades diagnósticas e terapêuticas fotoativadas. Em especial, nanoestruturas de ouro anisotrópicas ramificadas apresentam excelente desempenho atuando tanto como contrastes de imagens fotoacústicas, quanto como agentes ativos para terapias fototérmicas de câncer. Apesar dos avanços nas suas rotas de síntese, o desenvolvimento dessas nanoestruturas de forma simples e reprodutível ainda é desafiador. O presente trabalho visou o desenvolvimento de nanopartículas de ouro anisotrópicas ramificadas, ou nanoflores, que sejam fotoativas no infravermelho-próximo para a terapia e diagnóstico de câncer. Em particular, buscou-se o desenvolvimento de uma síntese simples para sua obtenção, assim como a verificação de sua atuação como agente de contraste fotoacústico e como agente ativo para hipertermia de tumores. Para tanto, desenvolveu-se uma síntese in situ que permitiu a obtenção de nanoflores monodispersas com tamanho e propriedades ópticas controláveis. Através da variação de aspectos da síntese, como a temperatura e a concentração de ouro, foi possível sintonizar a atividade óptica das partículas entre 590 e 960 nm. Sua formação foi confirmada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura, espalhamento de luz dinâmico e espectroscopia UV-visível. As partículas apresentaram boa estabilidade de suas características físico-químicas por dois meses e meio. Ainda, as nanoflores se mostraram estáveis, também, quando suspensas em meio de cultura, sob irradiação de lasers, e quando mantidas a temperatura corpórea por longos intervalos. Sua resposta fotoacústica foi caracterizada, apresentando sinais significativos e permitindo a obtenção de imagens claras de sua localização, mesmo em baixas concentrações. Testes realizados em cultura de células mostraram que as nanoflores foram eficazes na hipertermia de uma linhagem de hepatocarcinoma de rato (HTC), ao mesmo tempo que não apresentaram sinais de toxicidade a uma linhagem de fibroblastos de camundongos (FC3H). Esses resultados revelam uma possibilidade simples de fabricação de nanoestruturas de ouro anisotrópicas ramificadas, que podem servir como uma plataforma promissora para o diagnóstico e terapia do câncer. / Gold nanoparticles have shown enormous potential of application in photodiagnostic and in phototherapeutic procedures. Notably, branched anisotropic gold nanostructures present distinguished performance acting as contrast agents of photoacoustic images and as active agents for photothermal therapies for cancer. Despite advances in their synthesis routes, the growth of these nanostructures in a simple and reproducible way is still challenging. The present study was aimed at developing branched anisotropic gold nanoparticles, coined nanoflowers, that are photoactive in the near-infrared for therapy and diagnosis of cancer. In particular, we sought to develop a simple synthesis route, as well as to verify its application for both, as photoacoustic contrast agents and as active agents for tumor hyperthermia. An in situ synthesis was developed which allowed the development of monodisperse nanoflowers with controllable size and optical properties. Through variations of certain aspects of this procedure, such as temperature and gold ions concentration, it was possible to tune the optical activity of the particles between 590 and 960 nm. The nanostructure morphology was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering and UV-visible spectroscopy. The particles exhibited consistent physicochemical characteristics and good stability for two and a half months. Furthermore, the nanoflowers were also stable when suspended in cell culture medium, under laser irradiation and when maintained at body temperature for long intervals. Its photoacoustic response was characterized, presenting significant responses and generating clear images of its location, even at low concentrations. In vitro tests revealed that these nanoflowers were effective therapeutic agents for photothermal therapy of a rat hepatocarcinoma (HTC) lineage, while showing no signs of toxicity to mouse fibroblast (FC3H) cell line. These results reveal a simple procedure of synthesizing branched anisotropic gold nanostructures, which can serve as a promising platform for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le domaine de l'imagerie photoacoustique en tant que modalité d'imagerie prometteuse pour la médecine. Il a consisté en l'expérimentation du guidage photoacoustique de la thérapie par ultrasons focalisés de haute intensité (HIFU), et en l'étude de la génération par des agents de contraste spécifiques que sont les nanoparticules d'or. Dans un premier temps lors d'expériences in vitro, une sonde conçue à la fois pour l'imagerie photoacoustique et la thérapie ultrasonore a été utilisée pour démontrer la faisabilité du guidage photoacoustique pour traiter par HIFU une zone tissulaire cible. L'usage de la photoacoustique pour le contrôle des HIFU révèle ainsi son caractère prometteur. Dans un second temps la modélisation physique de la génération photoacoustique par des nanoparticules d'or permet de quantifier les mécanismes non-linéaires thermoélastiques impactant le signal émis. Dans le cas d'une nanosphère d'or unique, nous décrivons en fonction des paramètres du problème l'importance de la contribution de ces phénomènes non-linéaires, qui sont causés par la dépendance en température de la dilatation thermique de l'eau. Nous en tirons un ensemble de prédictions quantitatives quant à l'influence et le poids de ces non-linéarités sur le signal photoacoustique. Puis nous généralisons ces résultats théoriques à une collection de nanosphères d'or, et les confrontons à nos résultats expérimentaux. Nous mettons ainsi en évidence une nouvelle forme prometteuse de contraste en imagerie photoacoustique: le contraste de non-linéarité thermoélastique. / This work falls within the field of photoacoustic imaging as a promising modality for biomedical applications. It consists in experimenting photoacoustic guidance of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for therapy, and in studying photoacoustic generation by gold nanoparticles as contrast agents. First of all, a probe designed for both photoacoustic imaging and ultrasound therapy was employed for \textit{in vitro} experiments. We demonstrate the feasability of photoacoustic guidance to treat a target embedded in biological tissue, as a promising tool for HIFU control. In a second part we model the physical mechanisms of photoacoustic generation by gold nanoparticles. This allows to quantify thermoelastic nonlinearities impacting the emitted signal, which origins derive from the temperature dependence of the thermal expansion coefficient of water. In the case of a single gold nanosphere, we describe the nonlinear contribution to the signal according to the different parameters of the problem. We infer a set of quantitative predictions concerning the weight of nonlinearities on photoacoustic signals. Then we generalize these theoretical results to a collection of gold nanospheres, and confront them to our experimental results. Thermoelastic nonlinearity thereby offers a promising new type of contrast for photoacoustic imaging.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(薬科学) / 甲第21713号 / 薬科博第104号 / 新制||薬科||11(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院薬学研究科薬科学専攻 / (主査)教授 小野 正博, 教授 山下 富義, 教授 髙倉 喜信 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Pharmaceutical Sciences / Kyoto University / DFAM

<p><a>Molecular imaging revolutionized the way researchers and clinicians visualize and investigate complex biochemical phenomena, and it is beneficial </a><a>for disease diagnosis, drug design and therapy assessment</a>. Among a variety of different imaging techniques, the non-ionizing and non-invasive photoacoustic (PA) imaging is attracting increased attentions, owing to its high spatial and temporal resolutions with reasonable penetration depth in tissue. Parallel efforts have been the preparation of PA imaging agents which has high PA efficacy and can specifically label the targets at cellular or molecular level. Particularly, there is exponentially growing interest in imaging in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window (1000–1700 nm), where offers reduced tissue background and improved penetration depth. However, study of PA imaging in the NIR-II window is incomplete, partly due to the lack of suitable materials. Therefore, in my dissertation work I studied NIR-II PA imaging through semiconducting polymer. </p> <p>Firstly, the performance of PA imaging in the NIR-II window is explored by using a semiconducting polymer nanoparticle (SPN) which has strong absorption in the NIR-II window. Compared with lipid, blood and water, such SPN shows outstanding PA contrast in the NIR-II window <i>in situ</i> and <i>in vivo</i>, and an imaging depth of more than 5 cm at 1064 nm excitation is achieved in chicken-breast tissue. These results suggest that SPN as a PA contrast in the NIR-II window opens new opportunities for biomedical imaging with improved imaging contrast and centimeter-deep imaging depth.</p> <p>Next, targeted PA imaging of prostate cancer is achieved by functionalizing a NIR-II absorbing SPN with prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted ligands. Insights into the interaction of the imaging probes with the biological targets are obtained from single-cell to whole-organ by transient absorption (TA) microscopy and PA imaging. TA microscopy reveals the targeting efficiency, kinetics, and specificity of the functionalized SPN to PSMA-positive prostate cancer at cellular level. Meanwhile, the functionalized SPN demonstrates selective accumulation and retention in the PSMA-positive tumor after intravenous administration <i>in vivo</i>. Taken together, it is demonstrated that BTII-DUPA SPN is a promising targeted probe for prostate cancer diagnosis by PA imaging. </p> <p>Lastly, PA imaging in the NIR-II window is also achieved water-soluble semiconducting polymer, which is prepared by oxygen-doping. After doping, it shows broadband absorption in the entire NIR-II window, with great chemical stability, photostability and biocompatibility. Owing to its merit of broadband absorption, the imaging depth comparison among different NIR-II wavelengths is also achieved. Moreover, this doped semiconducting polymer is readily soluble in normal physiological pH by virtue of carboxyl groups on side chains and tends to aggregate at an acidic environment which results in a 7.6-fold PA enhancement at pH 5.0. Importantly, a 3.4±1.0-fold greater signal in tumor tissue than that in muscle is revealed <i>in vivo</i>. This study provides a more attainable yet effective platform to the field for achieving water-soluble NIR-II absorbing contrast agents for activatable PA imaging. </p>

[pt] A maioria dos métodos de avaliação de ondas vibratórias é realizada através do contato entre o sensor e o objeto a ser analisado. Esse requisito de contato impõe algumas limitações de quais objetos podem ser avaliados, como por exemplo, o tamanho do mesmo. Uma técnica que expandiu a capacidade de medição se comparado aos sensores tradicionais de vibração é a vibrometria laser doppler. Ela possibilita medições não intrusivas com alta resolução espacial e tempo de teste reduzido. Dentre as várias aplicações que se beneficiam das aquisições com o vibrômetro laser doppler, o imageamento fotoacústico se encontra no centro do objetivo deste trabalho. O imageamento fotoacústico é uma tecnologia emergente que supera o alto espalhamento óptico em amostras biológicas utilizando o efeito fotoacústico. Ele combina aspectos de imageamento óptico e ultrassom e, consequentemente, algumas de suas vantagens: imagear certos componentes biológicos em profundidades de alguns centímetros e com alto contraste. A técnica mais direta de obter imagens em um sistema fotoacústico é a excitação pontual da amostra e a detecção por varredura. O foco deste trabalho é analisar e implementar uma técnica óptica para detecção das vibrações ultrassonoras em um sistema fotoacústico. Foram avaliados diferentes sistemas interferométricos experimentais, tanto por mapeamento pontual quanto por campo pleno. O princípio da interferometria e a teoria das medições quantitativas são apresentados para explicar as técnicas experimentais utilizadas para aquisição das ondas vibratórias. Igualmente, a técnica de processamento do sinal vibratório é discutida. Dentre as técnicas testadas experimentalmente, duas foram implementadas, analisadas e discutidas em detalhe e seus resultados foram apresentados e comparados entre si. A primeira técnica discutida é o Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI), um interferômetro heteródino que utiliza a dinâmica do laser e a sua grande sensibilidade ao fenômeno de reinjeção óptica para realizar medições de alta precisão do sinal retroespalhado da amostra. Essa técnica realiza suas aquisições ponto a ponto, através do do escaneamento do feixe do laser na superfície da amostra. Esse modo de aquisição possui um tempo de teste e processamento elevado, mas com alta resolução espacial e com a possibilidade de medir a região transitória. A segunda técnica utilizada para a aquisição de medidas de vibrações ultrassonoras é o estroboscópio Mach-Zehnder, um interferômetro de campo pleno que possibilita a aquisição do padrão de speckle de toda a região de interesse da amostra com baixo tempo de aquisição e processamento. Dessa forma, essa técnica tem um grande potencial para aplicações em tempo real. Os resultados experimentais de ambos os sistemas são apresentados e discutidos em detalhe. Um transdutor piezoelétrico é utilizado para as medições com os dois sistemas, com as mesmas características de teste. Adicionalmente, são apresentados os resultados com a técnica LOFI quando o ganho não-linear é compensado. Esse tipo de teste não é possível no sistema estroboscópico Mach-Zehnder campo pleno, considerando que apenas o LOFI é capaz de realizar medidas transitórias. Para concluir o trabalho, são discutidos e comparados os principais parâmetros para as técnicas testadas: ruído, potência do laser, resolução espacial, resolução temporal, e tempo de aquisição. / [en] Photoacoustic imaging combines aspects of optical and ultrasound imaging and, consequently, combines some of their particular advantages: imaging of specific tissue components in a depth up to several centimeters becomes possible with a high image contrast. The most straightforward strategy to produce photoacoustic images is point-wise excitation and detection in a scanning mode. The main focus of this work is to analyze and implement optical techniques to detect ultrasound vibrations in a photoacoustic system. We evaluate different interferometric systems, both point scanning and full field. Two techniques that were implemented and further discussed are the Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI), which is a sensitive, point scanning, heterodyne interferometer that uses the dynamics of the laser, and a full field, stroboscopic Mach-Zehnder to acquire ultrasound vibration measurements.We discuss the results from each system and its advantages with the intended application.

En microscopie, savoir focaliser la lumière à l’échelle micrométrique est déterminant. Dans les tissus biologiques néanmoins, les inhomogénéités du milieu diffusent la lumière, empêchant toute focalisation au-delà d’une profondeur de l’ordre du millimètre. Des techniques de façonnage de front d’onde ont été développées afin de pré-compenser la distorsion du faisceau lumineux induite par la propagation à travers un milieu diffusant. Pour parvenir à focaliser la lumière à l’intérieur même du milieu diffusant, l’enjeu est de mesurer l’intensité lumineuse en profondeur de manière non invasive. Nous proposons d’utiliser l’effet photoacoustique pour sonder cette intensité. Une structure optiquement absorbante éclairée par une impulsion lumineuse émet en effet un signal ultrasonore, dont l’amplitude est proportionnelle à l’intensité lumineuse. Ces ultrasons se propagent de façon quasi-balistique dans les tissus mous et peuvent donc être détectés à l’aide d’un transducteur acoustique externe. Cette mesure permet donc de déterminer l’intensité lumineuse éclairant l’absorbeur. Nous avons montré qu’il était possible d’utiliser l'imagerie photoacoustique pour mesurer la matrice de transmission d’un échantillon diffusant. Cette caractérisation nous permet de focaliser la lumière sur des structures absorbantes et de sonder des propriétés mésoscopiques du milieu diffusant. Nous avons montré que la large bande spectrale des signaux photoacoustiques permet d’améliorer la focalisation. Enfin, nous avons montré que l’utilisation d’une source de lumière cohérente permet de pallier certains artefacts de l’imagerie photoacoustique, ainsi que de franchir la limite de résolution acoustique. / Light focusing is a crucial requirement for high resolution optical imaging. In biological tissue though, refractive index inhomogeneities scatter light, preventing any focusing beyond one millimeter. Wavefront shaping techniques have been recently developed to partially compensate for light scattering after propagation through a scattering medium. These techniques require a measurement of the light intensity at the target point. These techniques hold much promise for performing wavefront correction in order to focus light deep inside scattering media. This would require a non-invasive measure of the light intensity at depth. In this PhD study, we propose to use the photoacoustic effect for such task. An optically absorbing structure under pulsed illumination indeed generates ultrasonic waves, whose amplitude is proportional to the absorbed light intensity. These ultrasounds mostly propagate in a ballistic way, and can therefore be detected with an external transducer. We have shown that photoacoustic imaging could be used to measure the transmission matrix of a scattering sample, enabling to focus light on absorbing structures as well as to retrieve mesoscopic properties of the medium. We have shown that the broadband spectral content of the photoacoustic signals can be harnessed to improve the focusing performances. Finally, we demonstrated that coherent illumination could be used to remove fundamentals artefacts, as well as to break the acoustic resolution limit of conventional deep tissue photoacoustic imaging.