Desde meados do século XX, métodos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais foram utilizados para quantificar a eficiência térmica na soldagem a arco, isto é, a razão entre a energia do arco elétrico e a energia que é entregue ao material durante a soldagem. Conhecendo-se a eficiência térmica, as dimensões da chapa e as propriedades térmicas do metal de base, torna-se possível prever as taxas e tempos de resfriamento a partir de modelo analíticos. Consequentemente, permitindo a previsão das transformações de fase, garantindo que os valores das propriedades da junta soldada se enquadrem dentro de um intervalo desejado. Os modelos de previsão de taxa de resfriamento derivados a partir dos modelos analíticos de Rosenthal são validos apenas no regime quase estacionário. Todavia, estes modelos costumam ser utilizados com pouco critério, mesmo em situações em que este regime não é alcançado. Portanto, para o desenvolvimento de modelos mais precisos e acurados para previsões das taxas de resfriamento, torna-se necessário entender como os termos do balanço de energia se desenvolvem durante a soldagem, até atingir o regime quase estacionário. Este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver um entendimento mais abrangente dos fatores que impactam nos valores de taxas de resfriamento em juntas soldadas. Realizaram-se ensaios de calorimetria com nitrogênio líquido para diferentes tempos de soldagem, como também, foram coletados ciclos térmicos em diferentes posições ao longo do cordão, buscando entender como as variações no balanço de energia, ao longo da soldagem, impactam no material. A partir da Metodologia de Superfície de Resposta, foram obtidos os modelos empíricos da energia entregue ao material e da eficiência térmica do arco. Um novo entendimento acerca do balanço de energia na soldagem foi alcançado, servindo de base para o desenvolvimento e validação de um modelo preditivo de taxa de resfriamento, válido para diferentes condições de fluxo de energia no material. / Since the early 20th century, numerical and experimental methods have been used to quantify the thermal arc efficiency in welding, i.e., the ratio between the electric arc energy and the energy delivered to the material during welding. Knowing the thermal arc efficiency, the sample dimensions and the thermal properties of the base metal, it is possible to predict the cooling rates by analytical models. Consequently, allowing the prediction of phase transformations in the material, ensuring that values of welded joint properties are within a desired range. Cooling rate prediction models derived from Rosenthal\'s analytical models are valid only in quasi-stationary state. However, these models are used with little criterion, even in situations where this state is not achieved. Therefore, to development of more accurate and precise models for the prediction of cooling rate it become necessary to understand the evolution of the energy balance during the welding until the quasi-stationary state was reached. This work aims to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that affect the cooling rate in welded joints. Calorimetry tests with liquid nitrogen were carried out for different welding times, and thermal cycles were collected at different positions along the weld bead, to understand how the variations in the energy balance during the welding affect the material. From the Response Surface Methodology, the empirical models of delivered energy and the thermal arc efficiency were obtained. A new understanding about the energy balance in the welding was found, that was used for the development and validation of a predictive model of cooling rate, valid for different condition of energy flow in the material.

L’usinage par électroérosion est un procédé d’enlèvement de matière par fusion, vaporisation et érosion, réservé aux matériaux conducteurs et semi-conducteurs.Il peut être utilisé pour usiner les métaux et alliages, les aciers trempés, les alliages céramiques, les carbures métalliques, certaines céramiques et même des matériaux plus durs tels que le diamant polycristallin. La pièce ainsi chauffée voit ses caractéristiques mécaniques chuter et modifier, ce qui augmente son usinabilité. Les travaux réalisés ont porté sur l'influence de l'usinage par électroérosion à fil sur; l'intégrité de surface, l'usinabilité, la productivité et la précision de procédé, de plusieurs matériaux, tels que, le titane pur, l'alliage de titane Ti-6Al-4V, le composite intermétallique à base Ti-Al, le composite Ti17 et le composite Ti6242.En usinage par électro-érosion à fil, et plus précisément en finition, le procédé est caractérisé par un débit de matière, une largeur de kerf, un durcissement superficiel, une zone affectée thermiquement et un état de surface variant en fonction de plusieurs paramètres tels que, le courant de décharge, le temps d’impulsion, la tension d’amorçage, la vitesse de coupe, la pression d'injection de lubrifiant et la tension de fil.Toutefois, il s’agit d’une étude d’optimisation et de modélisation empirique des conditions de coupe des matériaux composites à base métallique et des alliages de titane, afin de maitriser et d'améliorer l'intégrité de surface usinée, d'augmenter la productivité et de perfectionner la précision du procédé. Par la suite, atteindre les exigences de la qualité et de la sûreté de fonctionnement des pièces aéronautiques.Dans cette étude, on a utilisé des méthodes de type Plan d'expériences, méthode de Taguchi et la Méthodologie des surfaces de réponses pour le calage et le contrôle des paramètres de l’usinage par électroérosion à fil, et ses conditions opératoires. / EDM machining is a process for the removal of material by melting, spraying and erosion, which is reserved for conductive and semiconductor materials.It can be used for machining metals and alloys, hardened steels, ceramic alloys, metal carbides, some ceramics and even harder materials such as polycrystalline diamond. The heated part has its mechanical characteristics drop, which increases its machinability. The work carried out focused on the influence of WEDM machining on surface integrity, machinability, productivity and process precision, of several materials: pure titanium, Ti6Al4V alloy, composite intermetallicTi-Al based, Ti17 composite and Ti6242 composite.In ripping, and more precisely in finishing, the process is characterized by a flow of material,kerf width, surface hardening, heat affected zone and surface condition varying with discharge current, pulse time and voltage, cutting speed, lubricant injection pressure and wire tension.In fact, the machining conditions of metal-based composite materials and titanium alloys have been modeled and optimized to improve machined surface integrity, increase productivity, and improve process accuracy. Subsequently, meet the quality and safety requirements of aeronautical parts.Methods such as Experimental Design, Taguchi and Surface of Response were used for calibration and process control parameters and operating conditions.

Η ανάγκη αντιμετώπισης του προβλήματος της ρύπανσης των επιφανειακών και υπόγειων υδάτων έχει οδηγήσει στην ανάπτυξη νέων και αποτελεσματικών μεθόδων για την απομάκρυνση έμμονων και μη βιοαποικοδομήσιμων ενώσεων από το νερό και τα υγρά απόβλητα. Η παρούσα διατριβή πραγματεύτηκε τη συστηματική μελέτη της διάσπασης ρύπων προτεραιότητας και αναδυόμενων ρύπων που ανήκουν σε διαφορετικές χημικές κατηγορίες (DEET, metribuzin, 2-ισοπρόπυλο-3-μεθόξυ πυραζίνη, η πενταχλωροφαινόλη, βενζοϊκό οξύ, Cr(VI) και φαινολικές ενώσεις) με τη μέθοδο της ετερογενούς φωτοκατάλυσης και τη χρήση εμπορικά διαθέσιμων δραστικών μορφών TiO2 και τροποποιημένων σωματιδίων ΤiΟ2 με αμέταλλα που παρουσιάζουν φωτοκαταλυτική δραστικότητα στο ορατό φάσμα της ακτινοβολίας. Για το σύνολο των ενώσεων που μελετήθηκαν, η έρευνα επικεντρώθηκε: i) στη μελέτη της κινητικής της αποδόμησης και της ολικής ανοργανοποίησης τους με τη μέθοδο της ετερογενούς φωτοκατάλυσης, ii) στη μελέτη της επίδρασης λειτουργικών παραμέτρων στην απόδοση της φωτοκαταλυτικής απομάκρυνσης των ρύπων και στην εύρεση των βέλτιστων συνθηκών με την εφαρμογή των δύο ευρέως χρησιμοποιούμενων χημειομετρικών μεθόδων, της μεθοδολογίας επιφάνειας απόκρισης (RSM) και των τεχνητών νευρωνικών δικτύων (ANNs), iii) στην ανίχνευση και ταυτοποίηση ενδιάμεσων προϊόντων διάσπασης των οργανικών ρύπων με φασματομετρικές τεχνικές όπως υγρή χρωματογραφία-φασματομετρία μαζών υψηλής διακριτικής ικανότητας και ακρίβειας μάζας με αναλυτή τροχιακής παγίδας (Orbitrap) και αέρια χρωματογραφία–φασματομετρία μάζας με την τεχνική ιοντισμού με πρόσκρουση ηλεκτρονίων (Εlectron Impact, EI) και φασματοσκοπία ηλεκτρονικού παραμαγνητικού συντονισμού, iv) στη συνεισφορά των δραστικών ειδών οξυγόνου, οπών και ηλεκτρονίων στη φωτοκαταλυτική αποικοδόμηση των ρύπων, v) στη μελέτη του ρόλου των φυσικών συστατικών (χουμικά και φουλβικά οξέα) διαφόρων υδατικών συστημάτων καθώς και στην εκτίμηση της επίδρασης του υδατικού μέσου στην κινητική της διεργασίας, vi) στην εκτίμηση της τοξικότητας πριν και κατά τη διάρκεια της φωτοκαταλυτικής επεξεργασίας. Με την εφαρμογή της ετερογενούς φωτοκατάλυσης επετεύχθη πλήρης απομάκρυνση όλων των ρύπων-μοντέλων που μελετήθηκαν και υψηλός βαθμός ανοργανοποίησης των διαλυμάτων τους. H φωτοκαταλυτική διάσπαση λαμβάνει χώρα σε ποσοστό μεγαλύτερο του 90% σε χρόνους που κυμαίνονται από 20-180 λεπτά ανάλογα με το μελετώμενο ρύπο. Ένας μεγάλος αριθμός κύριων προϊόντων διάσπασης και τουλάχιστον ένα ισομερές για τα περισσότερα από αυτά, ταυτοποιήθηκε κατά τη φωτοκαταλυτική διάσπαση της PCP, του DEET, του ΜΕΤ και της ΙPMP με τη χρήση προηγμένων τεχνικών φασματομετρίας μάζας. Με βάση τα προϊόντα που ταυτοποιήθηκαν, προτάθηκαν οι μηχανισμοί της φωτοκαταλυτικής διάσπασης των μελετώμενων ρύπων που περιλαμβάνουν κυρίως αντιδράσεις υδροξυλίωσης, οξείδωσης και απαλκυλίωσης. Η οξείδωση μέσω ριζών υδροξυλίου (HO•)βρέθηκε να αποτελεί το κύριο οξειδωτικό είδος σε όλα τα μελετώμενα συστήματα. Η δοκιμή τοξικότητας που πραγματοποιήθηκε, πριν και κατά τη διάρκεια της φωτοκαταλυτικής επεξεργασίας των οργανικών ρύπων έδειξε ότι η μέθοδος της ετερογενούς φωτοκατάλυσης οδηγεί σε πλήρη αποτοξικοποίηση των διαλυμάτων. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα της φωτοκαταλυτικής οξείδωσης των οργανικών ρύπων-μοντέλων και της φωτοκαταλυτικής αναγωγής του Cr(VI) που μελετήθηκαν στην παρούσα διατριβή, η μέθοδος της ετερογενούς φωτοκατάλυσης μπορεί να αποτελέσει μια αποδοτική εναλλακτική πρόταση αντιρρύπανσης έναντι των κλασσικών μεθόδων. Η ουσιαστική λύση σε προβλήματα ρύπανσης αποφεύγοντας τη μεταφορά των ρύπων από τη μία φάση στην άλλη, η δυνατότητα χρήσης και αξιοποίησης ήπιων μορφών ενέργειας όπως η ηλιακή ακτινοβολία και η σύζευξη της μεθόδου με άλλες βιολογικές ή/και φυσικοχημικές μεθόδους επεξεργασίας αποδεικνύουν τις μεγάλες προοπτικές που παρουσιάζει. / In order to avoid deterioration of water resources, considerable efforts have been devoted to develop suitable purification methods that can easily remove recalcitrant (persistent) and non-biodegradable contaminants from water and wastewater. In the present thesis the photocatalytic removal of selected priority pollutants and emerging contaminants belonging in different chemical categories has been investigated in detail. DEET, metribuzin, 2 isopropyl-3-methoxy pyrazine, pentachlorophenol (PCP), benzoic acid (BA), Cr(VI) and phenolic compounds were selected as target compounds. The commercial form of TiO2 (Degussa P25) and NF-codoped TiO2, a material with improved photo efficiency and visible light response were used as photocatalysts. The main objectives of this thesis were: i) to evaluate the kinetics of selected pollutants disappearance and mineralization, ii) to investigate the effect of significant parameters on the total process efficiency as well as to optimize the photocatalytic procedure by means of chemometric optimization tools such as central composite design, response surface methodology and artificial neural networks, iii) to identify the transformation products formed during the photocatalytic treatment by using powerful analytical techniques such as high resolution accurate mass LC-MS, GC–MS and EPR spectroscopy, iv) to assess the role of the reactive species in the reaction mechanism using different scavengers, v) to assess the macroscopic effects of DOM (HA, FA) and water matrix on the photocatalytic degradation and vi) to evaluate the toxicity along the photocatalytic process. By the application of heterogeneous photocatalysis almost compete removal of the selected model contaminants and high percentages of mineralization were achieved. Photocatalytic removal (> 90%) was succeeded after 20-180 min of irradiation time, depending on the studied pollutant. Numerous different structures of transformation products (TPs), with at least one isomer for the majority of them, were identified with high resolution accurate mass liquid chromatography (HR-LC–MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Based on by-product identification using HR-LC-MS and GC–MS techniques possible degradation pathways were proposed. The pathways mainly include hydroxylation, oxidation and dealkylation reactions. Hydroxyl radicals (HO•) were determined to be the predominant reactive species during photocatalysis in all the studied systems. Toxicity assessment revealed the efficiency of the photocatalytic treatment to achieve almost complete detoxification of the solution. According to the results obtained for the photocatlytic oxidation of the studied organic pollutants-models and photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI), heterogeneous photocatalyis was shown to be a great potential as a sustainable treatment technology. Ιts inherent destructive nature, not involving mass transfer, the potential use of solar radiation as well as the combination of heterogeneous photocatalysis with biological and/or physicochemical methods make this method particularly attractive for environmental decontamination and detoxification.

A probabilistic methodology for the reliability analysis of composite rotor blades at the ply level was developed. The proposed methodology involves (i) the quantification of the uncertainties (physical, statistical and model) related to the material properties and the extreme aero-elastic loads based on experimental data as well as on 10 min load simulations respectively, (ii) the identification of the critical failure modes of the composite structure in terms of limit state functions and (iii) the selection of an appropriate reliability method to perform the analysis. It is pointed out that the reliability method should be able to handle the considerably large number of limit state function introduced by the ply level reliability approach and estimate the failure probability of the structure. To efficiently deal with the problem, an appropriate implementation of the Response Surface Method combined with crude Monte Carlo simulation was proposed. The methodology was implemented for two real rotor blade designs, namely a 30m Glass/Polyester and the 65m UPWIND reference rotor baled. Initially, calculations were performed for the first case study using a 3D shell FE formulation in a commercial probabilistic code. An efficient procedure was introduced to define the stochastic character of the concentrated loads acting on the 3D FE model starting from load time series of sectional stress resultants from aero-elastic beam simulations. For the first time such a detailed model was analyzed and assessed in a probabilistic base. Nevertheless, a considerable CPU time was in need for the performance of such a reliability analysis. The development of an efficient probabilistic tool capable to perform consecutive reliability analyses at the ply level of the composite rotor blade structure and prove valuable for the probabilistic design was carried out. To demonstrate the efficiency of the developed tool, the impact of various probabilistic modelling assumptions directly on the β-index value of a rotor blade design was studied. / Στην παρούσα διατριβή αναπτύχθηκε στοχαστική μεθοδολογία για την αποτίμηση αξιοπιστίας πτερυγίων ανεμογεννητριών από σύνθετα υλικά, στο επίπεδο της στρώσης, υπό ακραία στατική φόρτιση. Η προτεινόμενη μεθοδολογία περιλαμβάνει (i) την ποσοτικοποίηση αβεβαιοτήτων (φυσική, στατιστική και αβεβαιότητα μοντέλου) που σχετίζονται με τις βασικές παραμέτρους του πτερυγίου (υλικά και φορτία) στηριζόμενη σε ένα μεγάλο αριθμό πειραμάτων για τον προσδιορισμό των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων του συνθέτου υλικού καθώς και 10-λεπτες αεροελαστικές χρονοσειρές για την ακραία στατική φόρτιση (ii) την αναγνώριση όλων των σημαντικών μηχανισμών αστοχίας της κατασκευής και την έκφρασή τους στη μορφή οριακών συναρτήσεων αστοχίας και (iii) την επιλογή μίας κατάλληλης μεθόδου αξιοπιστίας. Σημειώνεται ότι η μέθοδος αξιοπιστίας θα πρέπει να είναι ικανή να διαχειρίζεται ένα πολύ μεγάλο αριθμό οριακών συναρτήσεων αστοχίας όπως επιβάλει η ανάλυση αξιοπιστίας στο επίπεδο της στρώσης της κατασκευής. Για το σκοπό αυτό προτάθηκε μια κατάλληλη τροποποίηση της Response Surface Method τεχνικής η οποία συνδυάστηκε με την μέθοδο προσομοίωσης crude Monte Carlo. Η προτεινόμενη στοχαστική μεθοδολογία εφαρμόστηκε για την περίπτωση δυο πραγματικών πτερυγίων: ενός 30 m Glass/Polyester και του 65 m Glass/Epoxy (UPWIND) πτερυγίου. Η ανάλυση αρχικά πραγματοποιήθηκε σε γενικού σκοπού στοχαστικά εργαλεία κάνοντας χρήση τρισδιάστατου μοντέλου πεπερασμένων στοιχείων. Σημειώνεται ότι ο υπολογισμός των φορτίων από αεροελαστικούς κώδικες υλοποιείται πάντα στη βάση στοιχείων δοκού. Προτάθηκε επομένως διαδικασία για την στοχαστική αναπαράσταση των συγκεντρωμένων δυνάμεων που επιβάλλονται στο τρισδιάστατο μοντέλο πεπερασμένων στοιχείων του πτερυγίου στηριζόμενη σε χρονοσειρές εσωτερικών αντιδράσεων στη διατομή όπως εξάγονται από αεροελαστικους υπολογισμούς. Για πρώτη φορά σε αυτή την εργασία, πραγματοποιήθηκε η στοχαστική ανάλυση ενός τόσο λεπτομερειακού μοντέλου. Ωστόσο η παραπάνω προσέγγιση αποδείχτηκε αρκετά χρονοβόρα. Για το σκοπό αυτό αναπτύχθηκε υπολογιστικό εργαλείο ικανό να εκτελεί ένα μεγάλο αριθμό επαναλήψεων της προαναφερθείσας μεθοδολογίας και να φανεί χρήσιμο στο σχεδιασμό πτερυγίων με προκαθορισμένο επίπεδο αξιοπιστίας. Εξαιτίας της απλότητας της προετοιμασίας των δεδομένων εισόδου και της ταχύτητας επίλυσης, το νέο εργαλείο έδωσε τη δυνατότητα για τη μελέτη διαφόρων στατιστικών υποθέσεων που αφορούσαν τη δομική αξιοπιστία του πτερυγίου εξετάζοντας απευθείας τον δείκτη αξιοπιστίας β της κατασκευής.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The generation of residual materials and its unavoidable disposal in the environment has been a reason of great concern, not only environmentally but also economically. The use of these renewable residual feedstocks, not only for the production of heat and energy, but also for the generation of technological products, has become a priority. In this study, it was investigated the physico-chemical and fermentative processes for the good use of the agro-industrial residue rice husks. The husks, resulting from the rice processing, has been also used, even incipiently, for the generation of heat to dry grains and electrical energy. As a result of this process, rice husk ash (RHA) is available, very rich in silica (sílica), representing a potential future source of industrial raw material. Micronized RHA, obtained from micro grinding process, was used to produce three types of silica xerogels, which were tested as additives for rice cultivation. The good results demonstrated the feasibility of the use of the xerogel silicas in substitution of agrochemical products. The influence of the process parameters (pH, time, concentration) was determined by means of the response surface methodology (RSM). The maximum production yields of sodium, potassium and calcium silica xerogels were 98%, 95% and 75%, respectively. The silica produced was characterized and analyzed by the following techniques: X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffractometry (XRF, XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), particle size distribution determined by laser diffraction, specific surface area by BET method (Brunauer, Emmett e Teller), and determination of metals by inductively coupled plasma emission optical pectrometry (ICP-OES). The production of xylose was studied by acid hydrolysis of rice husk, under pressure, in autoclave. Then, the xylose was converted into xylitol by fermentation. The process parameters, temperature and reaction time, were adjusted by RSM. Fermentations were performed using the yeast species Candida guilliermondii and Candida tropicalis, with maximum yields of 40% and 8%, respectively. The influence of various types of pretreatment of the sample was evaluated, demonstrating the potential yields of 66% and 64%, respectively, when the husk was treated with hydrogen peroxide and ammonium hydroxide solutions. When using physical pretreatment (ultrasound), yields up to 62% can be obtained. The influence of the variation of acid concentration and pH of the hydrolyzate on the yields was also evaluated. The contact time and amount of activated carbon added to the hydrolyzate exerts great influence on the process yield. The products obtained - xylose and xylitol - were identified and quantified by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) with electrospray ionization in positive mode. Results of the second order RSM applied to obtain silica xerogel as well as xylitol were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA). The efficiency of the processes studied here shows that they may be interesting alternatives of use of biomass residue rice husk, with considerable economic potential and positive environmental impact. / A geração de materiais residuais e o seu descarte no ambiente têm sido motivo de grande preocupação, tanto ambiental quanto econômica. O aproveitamento destas matérias-primas residuais renováveis, não apenas para a produção de energia e calor, mas também para a geração de produtos tecnológicos, tornou-se uma prioridade. Neste trabalho, investigaram-se processos físico-químicos e fermentativos para o aproveitamento do resíduo agroindustrial casca de arroz (CA). A casca, resultante do beneficiamento do arroz, tem sido utilizada, ainda que incipientemente, na produção de calor para secagem de grãos e produção de energia elétrica. Em consequência deste processo, tem-se a formação de cinza da casca de arroz (CCA), muito rica em sílica (SiO2), apresentando grande potencial como futura matéria-prima industrial. A CCA micronizada, obtida a partir do processo de micromoagem, foi utilizada na obtenção de três tipos de sílicas xerogéis, que foram testadas como aditivos para o cultivo de arroz. Os bons resultados alcançados demonstram a viabilidade do aproveitamento da sílica xerogel em substituição a derivados agroquímicos. A influência dos parâmetros de processo (pH, tempo, concentração) foi determinada por meio de metodologia de superfície de resposta (RSM). Os rendimentos máximos de produção das sílicas xerogéis base sódio, potássio e cálcio foram de 98%, 95% e 75%, respectivamente. As sílicas produzidas foram caracterizadas e analisadas por meio de técnicas de fluorescência e difração de raios-X (XRF, XRD), espectrometria no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM), distribuição do tamanho de partículas segundo a técnica de difratometria a laser, área de superfície específica pelo método BET (Brunauer, Emmett e Teller) e determinação de metais pela técnica de espectrometria de emissão óptica com plasma indutivamente acoplado (ICP-OES). A produção de xilose foi estudada por meio de hidrólise ácida à pressão da CA. A xilose, por sua vez, foi convertida em xilitol por meio de processo fermentativo. Os parâmetros de processo, temperatura e tempo reacional, foram ajustados por meio de RSM. As fermentações foram feitas com auxílio das leveduras das espécies Candida guilliermondii e Candida tropicalis, com rendimentos máximos de 40% e 8%, respectivamente. Avaliou-se a influência de diversos tipos de pré-tratamento da amostra, evidenciando-se rendimentos de 66% e 64%, respectivamente, quando a CA foi tratada com solução de peróxido de hidrogênio e com solução de hidróxido de amônio. Quando se utiliza pré-tratamento físico (ultra-som), rendimento de até 62% pode ser obtido. A influência da variação da concentração de ácido e do pH do hidrolisado sobre o rendimento também foi avaliada. Comprovou-se, ainda, que o tempo de contato e a quantidade de carvão ativado adicionado ao hidrolisado, exercem grande influência sobre o rendimento. Os produtos obtidos - xilose e xilitol - foram identificados e quantificados por cromatografia líquida acoplada a espectrômetro de massas (LC-MS2) com ionização eletrospray, no modo positivo. Os resultados do modelo de superfície de resposta de segunda ordem, aplicado tanto ao processo de obtenção de sílicas xerogéis como ao de produção de xilitol, foram avaliados por meio de análise de variância (ANOVA). A eficiência dos processos estudados demonstra que estes podem constituir interessante alternativa para o aproveitamento da biomassa residual CA, com apreciável potencial econômico e positiva repercussão ambiental.

Les procédés de fabrication de pièces mécaniques par enlèvement de matière (tournage, fraisage, perçage, ...) connaissent une utilisation massive dans l’industrie aéronautique et l’automobile. Les pièces obtenues par ces procédés doivent satisfaire à des propriétés géométriques, métallurgiques et à des caractéristiques de qualité. Pour répondre à ces exigences, plusieurs essais expérimentaux basés sur le choix des conditions de coupe sont souvent nécessaires avant d’aboutir à une pièce satisfaisante. Actuellement, ces méthodes empiriques basées sur l’expérience des fabricants et des utilisateurs des outils coupants sont souvent très longues et coûteuses, donnent une large plage de choix des paramètres en fonction de leurs besoins. Toutefois, le coût très élevé d’un essai limite fondamentalement le nombre d’expériences, avoir une pièce respectant les caractéristiques souhaitées avec un coût acceptable devient une tâche difficile. / Manufacturing processes of mechanical parts by removal of material (turning, milling, drilling ...) have extensive use in aeronautic and automobile industry. The components obtained using these methods must satisfy geometric properties, metallurgical and quality characteristics. To meet these requirements, several experimental tests based on the selection of cutting conditions are often necessary before manufacturing. Currently, these empirical methods based on the experience of manufacturers and users of cutting tools (charts, diagrams with experimental findings, ...) are often very lengthy and costly. However, the high cost of a trial limits the number of experiments, so to have a deserted component with an acceptable cost is a difficult task. The importance of cutting conditions monitored by limitations is related to the type of material to be machined, since it determines the behavior of the machining.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:02:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6412.pdf: 14036212 bytes, checksum: dc6e90045bca1050bc9fd76f94f1f30a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-06-30 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The increase in the production of antimicrobial metabolites by Paenibacillus polymyxa RNC-D was appraised through the study of cultivation variables. Two process variables, namely the glucose and inoculum concentrations, were evaluated in different levels (5 to 40 g/l, and 2.5% to 5.0% v/v, respectively), and their effects on biomass formation, minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) against Escherichia coli and surface tension reduction (STR) were studied. The fermentation process was firstly carried out using non-optimized parameters, where the dependent variables biomass, MIC and STR reached the values of 0.6 g/l, 1.000,0 μg/ml and 18.4 mN/m, respectively. The optimum glucose (16 g/l) and inoculum concentrations (5.0% v/v) were defined in order to maximize the biomass formation, with low value of MIC and large STR of extract. Under these conditions, a biomass of 2.76 g/l, MIC of 15.8 μg/ml, and STR of 14.58 mN/m were predicted by the model. Data attained by experiments using optimized settings showed the following values: biomass 2.05 g/l; MIC 31.2 μg/ml; STR 10.7 mN/m. Thus, the percentage of improvement for each target response was: biomass 241.6%; MIC 96.88%; STR 41.85%. It was found that high concentrations of glucose substrate, although reflected in an increase in bacterial biomass, inhibited the microbial secondary metabolism, resulting in a low production of biomolecules associated with high values of MICs. Thus, initial concentrations of glucose and inoculum are shown as variables of strong influence in the production of antimicrobial metabolites by P. polymyxa RNC-D. Through the methods of experimental factorial design and surfaceresponse followed by graphical optimization it was possible to determine the optimum operating condition to achieve both maximum biomass and RTS as well as and lowest possible values of CIM. The validity of the proposed model was verified and confirmed. This is the first study on the optimization of culture conditions for the production of antimicrobial metabolites by P. polymyxa RNC-D, and constitutes an important step in the development of strategies to modulate the production of antimicrobial molecules by this microorganism in elevated levels. Novel antimicrobial compounds were isolated from the fermentation broth of P. polymyxa RNC-D, here named total extract (TE). It was possible to verify the presence of lipopeptide and peptide active compounds through enzymatic assays made with ET. Total extract was subjected to a two-phase system, resulting in lipopeptide extract (LPE) and aqueous fraction (AF). According to the results of bioassays, LPE has broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and fungi. The mass spectrometry analysis of PLA revealed the existence of a novel compound that was named polycerradin. The purification of a novel antimicrobial peptide (AMP) from the AF was carried out by using chromatography. The compound was active against Gram-negative bacteria. Nterminal analysis determined the amino acid sequence, as well as MS / MS analysis confirmed the primary structure of this new compound. This research reports firstly the production of PAM PpRNCD that has an unusual amino acid in its constitution. It is an unprecedented fact considering the bacterial specie P. polymyxa. In terms of molecule size, PAM PpRNCD can be considered one of the smallest active natural peptide reported to date. It was also possible to isolate from FA the depsipeptides IL-F04a (m/z 883), LI-F04b (m/z 897), LI-F03a (m/z 947) and LI-F03b (m/z 961) previously described in the literature. The photoluminescence study of the LPE, TE, AF in both at room temperature (RT) and low temperature (T = 8K) was performed. In addition, this technique was applied to evaluate the action of the ELP on Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Escherichia coli ATCC 29212, Shigella sonnei ATCC 1578 and Candida albicans ATCC 10231 in two different situations: (a) immediately after mixing LPE with the bacterial and fungus cell suspension, and (b) after thirty minutes. The photoluminescence emission was collected by a triple spectrometer (three diffraction gratings) T64000 model from Jobin Yvon, equipped with an optical microscope. For the detection of the radiation emitted by the sample we used a CCD camera (charge coupled device) cooled by liquid nitrogen. The slits of the spectrometer were adjusted to produce a spectral resolution of the order of 10-4 nm. The excitation source used was the line of 457 nm (violet) from an argon laser. The behaviors here observed indicate a strong potential for applications in biosensors as well as molecular markers. / Através do estudo de variáveis do cultivo pretendeu-se aumentar a produção de metabólitos antimicrobianos por Paenibacillus polymyxa RNC-D. Duas variáveis do processo - glicose e concentração de inóculo - foram avaliadas em diferentes níveis e seus efeitos na formação de biomassa, concentração inibitória mínima (CIM) contra Escherichia coli e redução na tensão superficial (RTS) foram estudados. Utilizando parâmetros não-otimizados as variáveis dependentes biomassa, CIM e RTS atingiram valores de 0,6 g/l, 1.000,0 μg/ml e 18,4 mN/m, respectivamente. As concentrações ótimas de glicose (16 g/l) e inóculo (5,0% v/v) foram definidas no sentido de maximizar a formação de biomassa e RTS do extrato, bem como diminuir o valor de CIM do extrato. Experimentalmente 2,05 g/l de biomassa; 31,2 μg/ml de CIM e 10,7 mN/m de RTS foram obtidos sob condições otimizadas. Foi constatado que altas concentrações do substrato glicose, embora refletissem em aumento de biomassa bacteriana, inibiram o metabolismo secundário microbiano, resultando em baixa produção de biomoléculas associada a altos valores de CIM. Através dos métodos de design fatorial experimental e superfície-resposta seguidos por otimização gráfica foi possível determinar a condição operacional ótima das concentrações iniciais de glicose e inóculo, as quais se demonstraram como variáveis de grande influência na produção de metabólitos antimicrobianos por P. polymyxa RNC-D. O extrato total (ET), proveniente do caldo de fermentação de P. polymyxa RNC-D, foi utilizado para pesquisa e isolamento de novos compostos antimicrobianos. Através de ensaios enzimáticos feitos com ET foi possível verificar a natureza lipopeptídica e peptídica dos compostos antimicrobianos. O ET foi submetido a um sistema de duas fases, separandose então em extrato lipopeptídico (ELP) e fração aquosa (FA). Resultados de bioensaios revelaram que o ELP apresenta amplo espectro de atividade contra bactérias Grampositivas, Gram-negativas e fungo. A análise por espectrometria de massas de ELP revelou a presença de um composto peptídico inédito o qual foi denominado polycerradin. A partir da fração aquosa (FA) foi possível a purificação de um novo peptídeo antimicrobiano (PAM) através de etapas cromatográficas. A bioatividade do composto foi avaliada e confirmada frente às bactérias Gram-negativas. A determinação da sequência de aminoácidos foi realizada por análise do N-terminal, e a confirmação da estrutura primária deste novo composto foi feita por MS/MS. O presente estudo relata pela primeira vez a produção do PAM PpRNCD que possui um aminoácido não usual em sua constituição, relato primeiramente aqui descrito considerando-se a espécie bacteriana P. polymyxa. Em termos de tamanho de molécula, pode-se considerar que o PAM PpRNCD é um dos menores peptídeos naturais ativos relatados até o momento. Utilizando-se a FA também foi possível o isolamento dos depsipeptídeos LI-F04a (m/z 883), LI-F04b (m/z 897), LI-F03a (m/z 947) e LI-F03b (m/z 961) previamente descritos na literatura. O estudo da fotoluminescência do ELP, do ET e da FA foi realizado tanto em temperatura ambiente (RT) quanto em baixa temperatura (T=8K). Também se estudou, através desta técnica, a ação do ELP sobre as bactérias Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Escherichia coli ATCC 29212, Shigella sonnei ATCC 1578 e fungo Candida albicans ATCC 10231 em duas situações: (a) imediatamente após a mistura do ELP com a suspensão celular bacteriana, e (b) trinta minutos após a mistura. Detectou-se emissão fotoluminescente por ELP, ET e FA, e sinais de Raman a λ 699 nm (FA a baixa temperatura). Decorridos 30 min da mistura do ELP com as suspensões celulares microbianas houve alteração na emissão fotoluminescente, sendo que alguns sinais foram suprimidos (λ 470, 480 e 700 nm para S. sonnei, por exemplo). Isto evidencia a potencial aplicação destas frações (ELP, ET e FA) para a fabricação de sensores, detectores e marcadores moleculares.

Desde meados do século XX, métodos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais foram utilizados para quantificar a eficiência térmica na soldagem a arco, isto é, a razão entre a energia do arco elétrico e a energia que é entregue ao material durante a soldagem. Conhecendo-se a eficiência térmica, as dimensões da chapa e as propriedades térmicas do metal de base, torna-se possível prever as taxas e tempos de resfriamento a partir de modelo analíticos. Consequentemente, permitindo a previsão das transformações de fase, garantindo que os valores das propriedades da junta soldada se enquadrem dentro de um intervalo desejado. Os modelos de previsão de taxa de resfriamento derivados a partir dos modelos analíticos de Rosenthal são validos apenas no regime quase estacionário. Todavia, estes modelos costumam ser utilizados com pouco critério, mesmo em situações em que este regime não é alcançado. Portanto, para o desenvolvimento de modelos mais precisos e acurados para previsões das taxas de resfriamento, torna-se necessário entender como os termos do balanço de energia se desenvolvem durante a soldagem, até atingir o regime quase estacionário. Este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver um entendimento mais abrangente dos fatores que impactam nos valores de taxas de resfriamento em juntas soldadas. Realizaram-se ensaios de calorimetria com nitrogênio líquido para diferentes tempos de soldagem, como também, foram coletados ciclos térmicos em diferentes posições ao longo do cordão, buscando entender como as variações no balanço de energia, ao longo da soldagem, impactam no material. A partir da Metodologia de Superfície de Resposta, foram obtidos os modelos empíricos da energia entregue ao material e da eficiência térmica do arco. Um novo entendimento acerca do balanço de energia na soldagem foi alcançado, servindo de base para o desenvolvimento e validação de um modelo preditivo de taxa de resfriamento, válido para diferentes condições de fluxo de energia no material. / Since the early 20th century, numerical and experimental methods have been used to quantify the thermal arc efficiency in welding, i.e., the ratio between the electric arc energy and the energy delivered to the material during welding. Knowing the thermal arc efficiency, the sample dimensions and the thermal properties of the base metal, it is possible to predict the cooling rates by analytical models. Consequently, allowing the prediction of phase transformations in the material, ensuring that values of welded joint properties are within a desired range. Cooling rate prediction models derived from Rosenthal\'s analytical models are valid only in quasi-stationary state. However, these models are used with little criterion, even in situations where this state is not achieved. Therefore, to development of more accurate and precise models for the prediction of cooling rate it become necessary to understand the evolution of the energy balance during the welding until the quasi-stationary state was reached. This work aims to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that affect the cooling rate in welded joints. Calorimetry tests with liquid nitrogen were carried out for different welding times, and thermal cycles were collected at different positions along the weld bead, to understand how the variations in the energy balance during the welding affect the material. From the Response Surface Methodology, the empirical models of delivered energy and the thermal arc efficiency were obtained. A new understanding about the energy balance in the welding was found, that was used for the development and validation of a predictive model of cooling rate, valid for different condition of energy flow in the material.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T18:08:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ariadine R C de Souza.pdf: 3448582 bytes, checksum: c9a134accab4a823b60c11ba4b8a1727 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-23 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This research project aimed the evaluation of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin hydrochloride (CIP (HCl)) removal in solution, by applying an electrocoagulation (EC) process. The CIP (HCl) solution was prepared with an initial concentration of 25 mg L-1 CIP (HCl) in distilled water. The experiments were conducted in an EC reactor in laboratory scale, consisting of aluminum electrodes. In order to get the best reactor operating parameters, regarding its variables (initial pH, current intensity and time of electrolysis), a response surface methodology was applied based on a complete experimental design (CED) 3³. The CIP (HCl) concentration was monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the mineralization was accompanied based on the reduction of total organic carbon (TOC). To obtain the operating conditions considered ideal for the operation of the EC reactor, a predicted second-order model was adjusted to the experimental responses and then validated by ANOVA. The influence of each reactor operating parameter was individually investigated, in a wider range than the one studied in the CED. Thus, the optimal values for each operating parameters were initial pH at 9.0 and current intensity of 0.8 A. From these responses, a kinetic analysis of the EC process was performed, reaching a rapid reduction of CIP (HCl) in the first minutes of electrolysis, stabilizing at 99% in times greater than 40 minutes. The toxicity of the treated solution was measured by applying ecotoxicity and phytotoxicity bioassays, taking as bioindicators Artemia salina and Lactuca sativa, respectively. The toxicity test using Artemia salina was susceptible to the type of remaining toxic compounds formed after the CIP (HCl) solution treatment of short duration. Furthermore, the remaining toxicity after 75 min of EC became nearly harmless to this bioindicator. On the other hand, the bioindicator Lactuca sativa was not susceptible to the action of these compounds at any treatment time. Due to the possible presence of the organic compound CIP (HCl) at a low concentration in the solutions treated by high electrolysis time, an antimicrobial activity analysis using the microorganisms S. aureus and E. coli was applied. The antimicrobial activity of the solution over 40 min electrolysis treatments was almost null or absent. In order to identify the CIP (HCl) in the sludge generated during the process, an X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was applied. CIP (HCl) was not identified in the residual sludge or the treated solution, indicating degradation of the compound during the treatment, possibly by electro-oxidation reactions. Therefore, the electrocoagulation provided the degradation of CIP (HCl) pollutant maintaining the treated solution free of toxicity and adverse biological effects to aquatic biota enabling their disposal in the environment, if the ideal operational conditions are maintained (initial pH 9.0, current density 0.8 A and electrolysis time of 75 min). / Este projeto de investigação visa avaliar a remoção do antibiótico cloridrato de ciprofloxacina (CIP(HCl)) em solução, por meio de um processo de eletrocoagulação (EC). A solução de CIP(HCl) foi preparada com concentração inicial de 25 mg L-1 de CIP(HCl) em água destilada. Os experimentos foram realizados em um reator de EC, em escala laboratorial, constituído por eletrodos de alumínio. A fim de obter os melhores parâmetros de operação do reator em relação as suas variáveis (pH inicial, intensidade de corrente e tempo de eletrólise), uma metodologia de superfície de resposta foi aplicada baseada em um planejamento experimental completo (PEC) 3³. A concentração de CIP(HCl) foi monitorada por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) e sua mineralização foi baseada na redução do carbono orgânico total (COT). Para obtenção das condições operacionais consideradas ideais para o funcionamento do reator de EC, um modelo previsto de segunda ordem foi ajustado às respostas experimentais e em seguida validado pela ANOVA. A influência de cada parâmetro de funcionamento do reator foi investigada individualmente em uma faixa de estudo mais ampla do que a avaliada PEC. Desta maneira, os valores considerados ideais para cada parâmetro operacional foram: pH inicial 9,0 e intensidade de corrente 0,8 A. A partir destas respostas, foi realizada uma análise cinética do processo de EC, onde se atingiu uma rápida redução de CIP(HCl) nos primeiros minutos de eletrólise, se estabilizando em 99% em tempos superiores a 40 min. A toxicidade da solução tratada foi avaliada aplicando bioensaios de ecotoxicidade e de fitotoxicidade, tomando como bioindicadores a Artemia salina e a Lactuca sativa, respectivamente. O teste de toxicidade utilizando a Artemia salina foi susceptível aos compostos tóxicos remanescentes formados após o tratamento da solução de CIP(HCl) de curta duração. Além disso, a toxicidade após 75 min de EC se tornou quase inócua a este bioindicador. Por outro lado, o bioindicador Lactuca sativa não foi susceptível à ação dos compostos tóxicos remanescentes a qualquer tempo de tratamento. Devido a possível presença do composto orgânico CIP(HCl) em baixas concentrações, nas soluções tratadas por elevados tempos de eletrólise, aplicou-se a análise de atividade antimicrobiana utilizando os micro-organismos S. aureus e E. coli. A atividade antimicrobiana da solução com tratamentos acima de 40 min de eletrólise foi ausente. Visando a identificação da CIP(HCl) no lodo gerado durante o processo, análises de difração de raio-X (DRX) foram realizadas. Não se identificou CIP(HCl) no lodo residual nem na solução tratada, indicando a degradação do composto durante o tratamento, possivelmente por reações de eletroxidação. Portanto, o processo de EC proporcionou a degradação do poluente CIP(HCl), mantendo a solução tratada isenta de toxicidade e de efeitos biológicos adversos à biota aquática possibilitando seu descarte no meio ambiente, se mantidas as condições operacionais ideais para o funcionamento do reator (pH inicial 9,0, intensidade de corrente 0,8 A e tempo de eletrólise de 75 min).

A metodologia de superfície de resposta foi utilizada para otimizar as condições e obter maiores produção de etanol e viabilidade para a linhagem de S. cerevisiae 63M em processo descontínuo, resultando nas condições: 200 g.L-1 de sacarose, 40 g.L-1 de inóculo a 30 °C. Diferentes tipos de processos foram comparados e o processo que apresentou maiores viabilidade, produtividade e rendimento foi o descontínuo alimentado por pulsos de volumes decrescentes de sacarose a 30 °C. A redução da concentração de sacarose foi uma estratégia que permitiu aumentar a temperatura até 37 °C sem perdas em viabilidades. Uma linhagem utilizada nas destilarias brasileiras foi comparada com a linhagem 63M em temperaturas elevadas e observou-se que a 63M produziu maior produtividade e rendimento. Oito ciclos sucessivos de fermentação com reutilização de células da linhagem 63M foram realizados em meio sintético em processo descontínuo alimentado por pulsos de sacarose a 37 °C e uma perda gradual de viabilidade foi observada, mas o etanol final permaneceu constante nos oitos ciclos. / Surface response methodology was used to optimize the conditions and to obtain higher ethanol production and viability to strain 63M of S. cerevisiae in batch culture, resulting in the conditions: 200 g.L-1 sucrose, 40 g.L-1 inoculum at 30 °C. Different types of processes were compared and the process that presented higher viability, productivity and yield was pulse fed-batch using five decreasing pulses of sucrose at 30 °C. The reduction of the sucrose concentration was a strategy that allowed increasing the temperature up to 37 °C without losses in viabilities. An industrial strain used in Brazilian distilleries was compared with strain 63M at high temperatures and it was observed that strain 63M produced higher productivity and yield. Eight successive cycles of fermentation with reuse of cells of strain 63M were carried out in synthetic medium in fed-batch process using sucrose pulses at 37 °C and a gradual loss of viability was observed, but the final ethanol was kept constant in the eight fermentation cycles.