A proposta do modelo computacional (DIMREDE) para dimensionamento de redes coletoras de esgotos sanitários de grande porte, a partir de um traçado conhecido, fundamenta-se na sua importância sanitária e ambiental, e na necessidade de minimizar os custos totais de tais sistemas. O modelo é destinado a microcomputadores, atendendo, portanto, aos requisitos de portabilidade. As redes de esgoto são projetadas para o regime de escoamento livre, embora em alguns casos, seja necessária a introdução de estações elevatórias em determinados pontos do sistema. O modelo prevê a incorporação dessas elevatórias, quando necessário, adicionando os respectivos custos no cômputo dos custos totais. As funções de custos utilizadas são baseadas em dados de redes executadas por companhias de saneamento do país. O DIMREDE permite também que, a equação governante da hidráulica de Hazen-Williams modificada, seja empregada. Trata-se de uma expressão que contempla fatores como a lâmina e velocidade de escoamento, diâmetro, declividade, material empregado no revestimento do conduto e viscosidade do fluido, na determinação do coeficiente de rugosidade, apresentando, desta forma, resultados mais condizentes com a realidade. / A computational model (DIMREDE) is proposed for design of large sewer networks whose layouts whose layouts are defined, based on their sanitary and environmental importance, as well as the costs minimization. The model is designed for microcomputers satisfying the portability criterion. In spite of the sewer networks being designed under free flow, many times the introduction of pump stations in such systems is necessary. The model evaluates costs of pump stations as part of the total cost function in terms of sewer networks already implemented by sanitation companies in Brazil. The DIMREDE program employs the modified Hazen-Williams equation for the system hydraulics, admiting that factors like depth, velocity, diameter, slope, lining material and fluid viscosity be considered in the determination of the coefficient of roughness, for obtaining more realistic results.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar in vitro o efeito do ácido cítrico líquido, ácido clorídrico na forma de gás e líquido na evolução do processo erosivo associado ou não a abrasão do tecido dentinário. Foram simuladas situações diárias que ocorrem na Doença do Refluxo Gastroesofágico (DRGE) e no consumo de alguns tipos de refrigerantes. O estudo foi fatorial 3 X 2 , tendo como fatores de estudo: exposição ao ácido em 3 níveis (ac. cítrico, ácido clorídrico na forma líquida e gasosa), abrasão em 2 níveis (sem e com escovação), o tempo foi analisado individualmente por ácido empregado para verificar a evolução do processo erosivo. Foram obtidos 60 espécimes de dentina (3 X 3 mm) a partir do terço cervical da raiz de incisivos bovinos, que foram isolados com resina composta, exceto a face a ser exposta aos desafios erosivos, que foi lixada e polida para planificar a superfície e remoção do cemento, metade desta face foi isolada com fita de silicone adesivo (controle). Os espécimes foram aleatoriamente divididos em 6 subgrupos (n=10). Foi realizado desafio erosivo com HCl líquido, 0,6%, pH=2; com gás do HCl , pH=2 ambos a 37ºC e com ácido cítrico líquido, 0,3%, pH=2,7, com temperatura ambiente (22ºC). A exposição foi de 20 segundos para os desafios com ácido clorídrico e por 5 minutos para o ácido cítrico em cada ciclo, repetidos 6 vezes. Após cada desafio erosivo, os corpos de prova ficaram imersos em saliva artificial por 1 hora, a 37°C, realizada ou não a abrasão e, em seguida, foram obtidas as imagens para as análises de perfil de desgaste, rugosidade de superfície, área, número e tamanho dos túbulos dentinários expostos. A abrasão foi realizada com escova elétrica por 10s e 200gf com dentifrício. Os dados foram submetidos aos testes ANOVA e Tukey (p<0,05). Pode-se observar que os ácidos cítrico e clorídrico (liquido) promoveu maior desgaste (p<0,05) do que o gás. A rugosidade foi mais intensa no ácido cítrico (p<0,05). Na morfologia da dentina o ácido clorídrico foi que promoveu maiores alterações (p<0,05) O fator tempo foi semelhante para todos os grupos e a escovação reduziu a rugosidade. Pode-se concluir que os diferentes ácidos promoveram um processo erosivo distinto, sendo que o gás de ácido clorídrico promoveu menor desgaste e o ácido cítrico, a maior rugosidade e o ácido clorídrico líquido promoveu maior alteração morfológica dos túbulos dentinários. / The aim of this study was to evaluate in vitro the effect of liquid citric acid, hydrochloric acid in the form of gas and liquid in the evolution of erosion with or without abrasion of the dentin. Everyday situations were simulated occurring in Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) and use of some types of soft drinks. The study was a factorial 3 x 2, with the study of factors: acid exposure in three levels (citric acid, hydrochloric acid in liquid and gaseous form), abrasion on two levels (with and without brushing), the time was analyzed individually by acid used to verify the evolution of erosion. There were obtained 60 samples of dentin (3 x 3 mm) from the cervical third of bovine incisors roots, which were lined with composite resin except the side to be exposed to erosive challenges, which was sanded and polished to plan surface and removal of cement, half of the face was covered with silicone adhesive tape (control). The specimens were randomly divided into 6 subgroups (n = 10). Erosive challenge was performed with liquid HCl, pH = 2; with gas HCl, 0,6%, pH = 2 both at 37°C and with liquid citric acid, 0,3%, pH 2.7, room temperature (22 ° C). Exposure was for 20 seconds with hydrochloric acid and challenges for 5 minutes to citric acid at each cycle, repeated 6 times. After each erosive challenge, the samples were immersed in artificial saliva for 1 hour at 37 ° C, performing or not the abrasion and then take the images to the wear profile analysis, surface roughness were obtained area , number and size of exposed dentinal tubules. The abrasion was performed with electric brush for 10 seconds and 200gf with toothpaste. The data were submitted to ANOVA and Tukey test (p <0.05). The time factor was similar in all groups and brushing reduced roughness. It can be seen that citric and hydrochloric acid (liquid) promoted increased wear (p <0.05) than the gas. The roughness was more intense citric acid (p <0.05). The morphology of the dentin hydrochloric acid was to the highest changes (p <0.05). The time factor was similar in all groups and brushing reduced roughness. It can be concluded that the different acids promoted a distinct erosion process, wherein hydrochloric acid gas promoted less wear and citric acid greater roughness and liquid hydrochloric acid promoted greater morphological changes of dentinal tubules

This research focuses on the effect of several convex and concave nose shapes on cavity formation for both hydrophilic and hydrophobic projectiles. It specifically investigates the effect of convex shape on the threshold velocity for cavity formation as well as the effect of concave shapes on cavity formation in terms of impact velocity, geometry of the concave shape and wettability of the projectile. For the convex cases, the streamlined axisymmetric shape significantly increases the threshold velocity when cavities form and is most pronounced for the ogive and cone. The study demonstrates that measuring the wetting angle and impact velocity is not enough to predict cavity behavior, rather the roughness and nose shape must also be taken into consideration for convex projectiles. For the concave cases, the cavities formed are highly influenced by impact speed and nose shape. Wetting angle did not have any visible effect on the cavity formed at higher impact speeds (7 m/s). The dynamics of the cavity formation are dominated by the pocket of trapped air formed when the concave projectiles impact the water. At low impact speeds (~0-1 m/s) the trapped air can separate the flow from the leading edge of the projectile nose when venting out and cause a large cavity to form, depending on the specific concave shape and speed. At moderate impact speeds (1-4 m/s) the trapped air will vent completely underwater forming a small ring-shaped cavity. At high impact speeds (4-10 m/s) the trapped pocket of air compresses tremendously and causes an unsteady pressure pulse, which can result in the formation of a bubble and jet in front of the cavity. The jet is formed by water passing behind the pocket of trapped air along the walls of the concave nose and converging into a jet at the top of the concave shape and entraining the trapped air as it descends.

This thesis documents a PhD research program undertaken at Swinburne University of Technology between the years 2000 and 2004. The research was funded by the Cooperative Research Centre for Cast Metals Manufacturing and was undertaken in collaboration with Nissan Casting Plant Australia Pty Ltd and the Ford Motor Company Australia Limited. This thesis reports on the investigation of the possibility of using an ultrasonic sensing-based, non-destructive testing system to detect gas porosity defects in aluminium die casting parts with rough surfaces. The initial intention was to develop a procedure to obtain ultrasonic signals with the maximum possible amplitude from defects within the rough surface areas of the castings. A further intention was to identify defects with the application of a suitable signal processing technique to the raw ultrasonic signal. The literature review has indicated that ultrasonic techniques have the potential to be used to detect subsurface defects in castings. The possibility of classifying very weak ultrasonic signals obtained from rough surface sections of castings through a neural network approach was also mentioned in the literature. An extensive search of the literature has indicated that ultrasonic sensing techniques have not been successfully used to detect sub-surface defects in aluminium die castings with rough surfaces. Ultrasonic inspection of castings is difficult due to the influence of microstructural variations, surface roughness and the complex shape of castings. The design of the experimental set-up used is also critical in developing a proper inspection procedure. The experimental set-up of an A-scan ultrasonic inspection rig used in the research is described in this thesis. Calibration of the apparatus used in the inspection rig was carried out to ensure the reliability and repeatability of the results. This thesis describes the procedure used to determine a suitable frequency range for the inspection of CA313 aluminium alloy castings and detecting porosity defects while accommodating material variations within the part. The results obtained from ultrasonic immersion testing indicated that focused probes operating at frequencies between 5 MHz and 10 MHz are best suited for the inspection of castings with surface roughness Ra values varying between 50 [micro milli] and 100 [micro milli]. For the purpose of validating the proposed inspection methodology, gas porosity defects were simulated through side-drilled holes in the in-gate section of selected sample castings. Castings with actual porosity defects were also used in this research. One of the conclusions of this research was that it was extremely difficult to detect defects in castings with surface roughness above 125 [micro milli]. Once the ultrasonic signal data was obtained from the sample aluminium die castings with different surface roughness values ranging from 5 [micro milli] to 150 [micro milli] signal analysis was carried out. Signal feature extraction was achieved using Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT), Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Wavelet Transforms (WT) prior to passing the ultrasonic signals into a neural network for defect classification. MATLAB tools were used for neural network and signal pre-processing analysis. The results indicated that poor classification (less than 75%) was achieved with the WT, PCA and combination of FFT/PCA and WT/PCA pre-processing techniques for rough surface signals. However, the classification of the signals pre-processed with the combination of WT/FFT, FFT/WT and FFT/WT/PCA classifiers provided much better classification of more than 90% for smooth surface signals and 78% to 84% for rough surface signals. The results obtained from ultrasonic testing of castings with both real and simulated defects were validated with X-ray analysis of the sample castings. The results obtained from this research encourage deeper investigation of the detection and characterisation of sub-surface defects in castings at the as-cast stage. Implications for the industrial application of these findings are discussed and directions for further research presented in this thesis.

The aim of this thesis is three-fold: i) to investigate the performance of both the Eulerian-Lagrangian model and the Eulerian-Eulerian model to simulate the turbulent gas-particle flow; ii) to investigate the indoor airflows and contaminant particle flows using the Eulerian-Lagrangian model; iii) to develop and validate particle-wall collision models and a wall roughness model for the Eulerian-Lagrangian model and to utilize these models to investigate the effects of wall roughness on the particle flows. Firstly, the Eulerian-Lagrangian model in the software package FLUENT (FLUENT Inc.) and the Eulerian-Eulerian model in an in-house research code were employed to simulate the gas-particle flows. The validation against the measurement for two-phase flow over backward facing step and in a 90-degree bend revealed that both CFD approaches provide reasonably good prediction for both the gas and particle phases. Then, the Eulerian-Lagrangian model was employed to investigate the indoor airflows and contaminant particle concentration in two geometrically different rooms. For the first room configuration, the performances of three turbulence models for simulating indoor airflow were evaluated and validated against the measured air phase velocity data. All the three turbulence models provided good prediction of the air phase velocity, while the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model base on the Renormalization Group theory (RNG) provided the best agreement with the measurements. As well, the RNG LES model is able to provide the instantaneous air velocity and turbulence that are required for the evaluation and design of the ventilation system. In the other two-zone ventilated room configuration, contaminant particle concentration decay within the room was simulated and validated against the experimental data using the RNG LES model together with the Lagrangian model. The numerical results revealed that the particle-wall coll ision model has a considerable effect on the particle concentration prediction in the room. This research culminates with the development and implementation of particle-wall collision models and a stochastic wall roughness model in the Eulerian-Lagrangian model. This Eulerian-Lagrangian model was therefore used to simulate the gas-particle flow over an in-line tube bank. The numerical predictions showed that the wall roughness has a considerable effect by altering the rebounding behaviours of the large particles and consequently affecting the particles motion downstream along the in-line tube bank and particle impact frequency on the tubes. Also, the results demonstrated that for the large particles the particle phase velocity fluctuations are not influenced by the gas-phase fluctuations, but are predominantly determined by the particle-wall collision. For small particles, the influence of particle-wall collisions on the particle fluctuations can be neglected. Then, the effects of wall roughness on the gas-particle flow in a two-dimensional 90-degree bend were investigated. It was found that the wa ll roughness considerably altered the rebounding behaviours of particles by significantly reducing the 'particle free zone' and smoothing the particle number density profiles. The particle mean velocities were reduced and the particle fluctuating velocities were increased when taking into consideration the wall roughness, since the wall roughness produced greater randomness in the particle rebound velocities and trajectories.

In this paper, we design and develop a new software tool that helps automatic lithofacies segmentation from geological data. Lithofacies is a crucial problem in reservoir characterization, and our study intends to prove that soft computing techniques like Wavelet transform modulus maxima lines (WTMM) and Detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) approaches allow a geological lithology segmentation from differed well logging. On one hand, WTMM proves to be useful for delimitation of each layer. We based on its sensitivity on the presence of more than one layer, On the other hand, DFA is used to enhance the estimation if the roughness coefficient of each lithology. We use them jointly to segment the lithofacies of boreholes located in the Algerian Sahara. Obtained results are encouraging to publish this method, because the principal benefit is economic.

<p>An arthroscope is a diagnostic instrument for visualisation of the interior of a joint. By adding a laser to an arthroscope and feeding the images to a computer, one gets an method to measure the structure of the cartilage covering the joint. This gives an added diagnostic value. The laser will create laser speckles and this report covers the basic theories behind this. The anatomy of the joints, the properties of cartilage and the background on the disease arthritis are also covered, as well as the field of surface topography and image processing.</p><p>Experiments were performed on three different materials - metals of different definite surface roughness, polymerised collagen and bovine articular cartilage.</p><p>The conclusion is that the technique would work, providing that some obstacles could be overcome. The technique itself is very precise and detects nanometric differences in the surface structure, making it extremely interesting for research purposes, such as follow-ups on treatments and studies of arthritis and cartilage repair.</p>

<p>When designing a new fuel management system for a spark ignition engine the amount of air that is fed to the cylinders is highly important. A tool that is being used to improve the performance and reduce emission levels is engine modeling were a fuel management system can be tested and designed in a computer environment thus saving valuable setup time in an engine test cell. One important part of the modeling is the throttle which regulates the air. The current isentropic model has been investigated in this report. A throttle body and intake manifold has been simulated using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and the influence of surface heating and surface wall roughness has been calculated. A method to calculate the effective flow area has been constructed and tested by simulating at two different throttle plate angles and several pressure ratios across the throttle plate. The results show that both surface wall roughness and wall heating will reduce the mass flow rate compared to a smooth and adiabatic wall respectively. The reduction is both dependent on pressure ratio and throttle plate angle. The effective area has showed to follow the same behaviour as the mass flow rate for the larger simulated throttle plate angle 31 degrees, i.e. an increase as the pressure drop over the throttle plate becomes larger. At the smaller throttle plate angle 21 degrees, the behaviour is completely different and a reduction of the effective area can be seen for the highest pressure drop where a increase is expected.</p> / <p>När ett nytt bränslesystem ska designas till en bensinmotor är det viktigt att veta hur stor mängd luft som hamnar i cylindrarna. Ett verktyg som är på frammarsch för att förbättra prestanda och minska emissioner är modellbaserad simulering. Med hjälp av detta kan ett bränslesystem designas och testas i datormiljö och därigenom spara dyrbar tid som annars måste tillbringas i en motortestcell. En viktig del av denna modellering är spjället eller trotteln vilken reglerar luften. I denna rapport har studier gjort på den nuvarande isentropiska modellen. Ett spjällhus och insugsgrenrör har simulerats med hjälp av Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) och påverkan av värme samt ytjämnhet på väggen har beräknats. En metod att beräkna den effektiva genomströmmade arean har konstruerats och testats vid två olika spjällvinklar samt flertalet tryckkvoter över spjället. Resultaten visar att både en uppvärmd vägg och en vägg med skrovlighet kommer att minska massflödet jämfört med en adiabatisk respektive en slät vägg. Minskningen har både spjällvinkel samt tryckkvots beroende. Den effektiva genomströmmade arean har visats sig följa samma beteende som massflödet vid den större simulerade spjällvinkeln 31 grader, det vill säga öka med ökat tryckfall över spjället. Vid den mindre vinkeln 21 grader, är beteendet helt annorlunda jämfört med massflödet och en minskning av den effektiva arean kan ses vid det största tryckfallet där en ökning förväntades.</p>

<p>A big responsibility lies in the hand of local authorities to exercise measures in preventing fatalities and damages during flood occurrences. However, the problem is how flooding can be prevented if nobody knows when and where it will be occurring, and how much water is expected. Therefore, the utilisation of flood models in such studies can be helpful in simulating what is anticipated to occur.</p><p> </p><p>In this study, the HEC-RAS steady flow model was used in calibrating different flood events in Testeboån river, which is situated in the municipality of Gävle in Sweden. The purpose is to provide inundation maps that show the water surface profiles for the various flood events that can help authorities in planning within the area. Moreover, the study would try to address certain issues, which concern one-dimensional models like HEC-RAS in terms of the effects of topographic data and the parameters used for friction coefficient.</p><p> </p><p>Various flood maps were produced to visualise the extents of the floods. In Oppala and Norra Åbyggeby, the big water extents for both the 100-year and the highest probable floods were visible in the forested areas and grasslands, although a few houses were within the predicted flooded areas. In Södra Åbyggeby, Varva, Forsby, and in the northern parts of Strömsbro and Stigslund, the majority of the residential places were not inundated during the 100-year flood calibration, but became flooded during the maximum probable flood. The southern portions of Strömsbro and Stigslund had lesser flood extents and houses were situated within the boundaries of the highest flood. In Näringen, there were also some areas close to the estuary that were flooded for both events.</p><p> </p><p>With the other calibrations performed, two factors that greatly affect the flood extents in the floodplain, particularly in flatter areas were topographic data and the parameters used as friction coefficient.  The use of high resolution topographic data was important in improving the performance of the software. Nevertheless, it must be emphasised that in areas characterised by gentler slopes that bounded the channel and the floodplain, data completeness became significant whereby both ground data and bathymetric points must be present to avoid overestimation of the inundation extent. The water extents also varied with the use of the various Manning’s <em>n</em> for the overbanks, with the bigger value showing greater water extents. Else, in areas with steeper slopes and where the water was confined to the banks, the effect was minimal.</p><p> </p><p>Despite these shortcomings of one-dimensional models, HEC-RAS provided good inundation extents that were comparable to the actual extent of the 1977 flooding.</p><p> </p><p>Modelling real floods has its own difficulties due to the unpredictability of real-life flood behaviours, and more especially, there are time dependent factors that are involved.  Although calibrating a flood event will not exactly determine what is to arise as they might either under- or overestimate such flooding occurrences, still, they give a standpoint of what is more or less to anticipate, and from this,  planning measures can be undertaken.</p>

To achieve efficient planarization with reduced device dimensions in integrated circuits, a better understanding of the physics, chemistry, and the complex interplay involved in chemical mechanical planarization (CMP) is needed. The CMP process takes place at the interface of the pad and wafer in the presence of the fluid slurry medium. The hardness of Cu is significantly less than the slurry abrasive particles which are usually alumina or silica. It has been accepted that a surface layer can protect the Cu surface from scratching during CMP. Four competing mechanisms in materials removal have been reported: the chemical dissolution of Cu, the mechanical removal through slurry abrasives, the formation of thin layer of Cu oxide and the sweeping surface material by slurry flow. Despite the previous investigation of Cu removal, the electrochemical properties of Cu surface layer is yet to be understood. The motivation of this research was to understand the fundamental aspects of removal mechanisms in terms of electrochemical interactions, chemical dissolution, mechanical wear, and factors affecting planarization. Since one of the major requirements in CMP is to have a high surface finish, i.e., low surface roughness, optimization of the surface finish in reference to various parameters was emphasized. Three approaches were used in this research: in situ measurement of material removal, exploration of the electropotential activation and passivation at the copper surface and modeling of the synergistic electrochemical-mechanical interactions on the copper surface. In this research, copper polishing experiments were conducted using a table top tribometer. A potentiostat was coupled with this tribometer. This combination enabled the evaluation of important variables such as applied pressure, polishing speed, slurry chemistry, pH, materials, and applied DC potential. Experiments were designed to understand the combined and individual effect of electrochemical interactions as well as mechanical impact during polishing. Extensive surface characterization was performed with AFM, SEM, TEM and XPS. An innovative method for direct material removal measurement on the nanometer scale was developed and used. Experimental observations were compared with the theoretically calculated material removal rate values. The synergistic effect of all of the components of the process, which result in a better quality surface finish was quantitatively evaluated for the first time. Impressed potential during CMP proved to be a controlling parameter in the material removal mechanism. Using the experimental results, a model was developed, which provided a practical insight into the CMP process. The research is expected to help with electrochemical material removal in copper planarization with low-k dielectrics.