Pour répondre à la demande croissante de bois et pour préserver les forêts primaires, les méthodes de sylviculture les plus dynamiques ont été privilégiées de manière générale sur la planète.. Les objectifs de la recherche étaient 1) déterminer le point de démarcation/ âge de transition entre le bois juvénile et le bois mature sur sengon (Falcataria moluccana), jabon(Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.), peuplier (Populus sp) et douglas (Psedotsuga menziesii); 2) analyser l'effet de la juvénilité sur un fissuration cyclique, la rugosité et de mouillage; 3) analyser l'effet de la fissuration cyclique et juvénilité sur la résistance à l'adhérence de la colle et les propriétés mécaniques du LVL en flexion; et 4) appliquer un nouveau modèle analytique pour estimer la variation du module d'élasticité du lamibois (sengon et jabon) depuis la moelle vers l'écorce. A partir de la longueur des fibres, le point de démarcation entre le bois juvénile et le bois mature ont été estimés. Pour les essences sengon and jabon, les placages obtenus à partir du cœur des arbres, réputés juvéniles, sont plus fissurés plus rugueux et avec une haute mouillabilité comparativement à ceux obtenus à partir du bois près de l’écorce (plus mature). Une phase d’étuvage préliminaire des bois dans un bain d’eau chaude à 75°C pendant 4 heures a permis d’améliorer sensiblement la qualité des placages en diminuant la fissuration, la rugosité et s’accompagne d’une augmentation de la mouillabilité. La résistance à l'adhérence de la colle, et les modules élastiques et de rupture spécifiques (SMOE et SMOR) du LVL (jabon et sengon) diminuent à mesure que la fréquence de fissure augmente ou en partant de l'écorce vers la moelle. L'avantage de l'utilisation de placages en peuplier de bois mature a été prouvé avec une amélioration de 15 à 20% en moyenne pour les propriétés mécaniques, pour un poids de panneau comparable. Pour le douglas, l'utilisation de placages de bois mature dans la constitution des panneaux de LVL permet également d’améliorer les performances en flexion (de 7 à 22 % sur el MOR). Le modèle analytique a été utilisé afin de prédire les variations du module élastique allant de la moelle à l’écorce. Il permet à partir d’un grand nombre de combinaisons d’estimer le potentiel issu d’une ressource donnée. Pour le contexte de l’étude qui représente bien le potentiel sylvicole de l’Indonésie, la proportion de bois juvénile étant quasi-totale (100%), l’action de trier les placages n’est pas apparue comme pertinente. / The development of plantation and community forest to meet wood demand in society has produced fast growing wood species. The research objectives were 1) to determine demarcation point/transition age between juvenile and mature wood on sengon (Falcataria moluccana), jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.), poplar (Populus sp) and douglas fir (Psedotsuga menzii); 2) to analyze the effect of juvenility on lathe check, surface roughness and wettability; 3) to analyze the effect of lathe check and juvenility on glue bond strength and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) bending properties; and 4) to apply a new analytical model to determine the variation of specific MOE LVL values of sengon and jabon from pith to bark. Based on fiber length trait, the demarcation point between juvenile and mature wood were approximately at segmented rings 17th (sengon) and at segmented ring 24th (jabon). While, transition age of poplar cultivars and douglas-fir, transition age happened approximately at 12 years old and 18 years old, respectively. The results showed that wood near pith on sengon and jabon resulted veneers with higher lathe check, rougher surface and high wettability, while wood near bark resulted veneers with lower lathe check, smoother surface and low wettability. Glue bond strength, Specific MOE (SMOE) and Specific MOR (Modulus of Rupture) of sengon and jabon LVL were decreased as the frequency of lathe check increased or those strength values increased from pith to bark. The advantage of using poplar veneers from mature wood was proved with an improvement of 15 to 20% on average for mechanical properties, while for douglas-fir, was 7 to 22%. An analytical model was used to predict the variation of the LVL mechanical characteristics using different scenarios. According to the context of this study assumed to be close to the Indonesian resource there is no need to sort veneers since most of the tree is juvenile wood for logs no older than 7.

Depuis plus de vingt ans, le besoin en numérisation 3D de pièces industrielles augmente considérablement. Par conséquent, un grand nombre de techniques expérimentales ont été proposées ainsi que quelques solutions commerciales. Cependant, des difficultés subsistent pour l’acquisition de surfaces optiquement non coopératives, comme les surfaces transparentes et/ou spéculaires. En effet, la transmission ou réflexion spéculaire de la lumière va à l’encontre du fonctionnement des systèmes conventionnels d’acquisition 3D, qui repose sur l’acquisition de la partie diffuse de la réflexion. Afin d’aborder la problématique de numérisation 3D des surfaces métalliques fortement réfléchissantes, nous proposons l’extension d’une technique non conventionnelle, initialement dédiée aux objets en verre et appelée « Scanning from Heating ». Cette technique diffère des approches classiques de triangulation active par la mesure de l’émission thermique de la surface plutôt que de la réflexion du rayonnement visible. Une source laser est géométriquement calibrée avec un capteur infrarouge pour extraire le nuage de points 3D des images thermiques. En nous appuyant sur les propriétés thermo-physiques des métaux, nous présentons un modèle théorique des échanges thermiques mis en jeu par la technique, permettant de démontrer la faisabilité sur les matériaux métalliques. Grâce à un outil de simulation par éléments finis, les résultats apportent des indications essentielles pour le développement d’une solution expérimentale et le réglage de celle-ci. Un premier dispositif expérimental a été mis en œuvre afin de valider le processus de numérisation 3D sur des surfaces spéculaires, de géométries et de compositions variées. Par ailleurs, une comparaison de nos résultats de numérisation avec ceux d’un système conventionnel permet de démontrer la polyvalence de notre technique. En effet, à partir d’un panel d’échantillons de géométries identiques mais d’états de surface différents, nous mettons en évidence que les performances d’acquisition 3D ne sont pas influencées par la rugosité de la surface. Enfin, en se basant sur des observations empiriques, un prototype de numérisation 3D est développé afin d’apporter des améliorations conséquentes par rapport au système initial / For the past twenty years, the need for three-dimensional digitization of manufactured objects has increased significantly and consequently, many experimental techniques and commercial solutions have been proposed. However, difficulties remain for the acquisition of optically non cooperative surfaces, such as transparent or specular ones. Since the working principle of conventional scanners is based on the acquisition of the diffuse part of the reflection, transparency and specular reflections may cause outliers. To address highly reflective metallic surfaces, we propose the extension of a non conventional technique that was originally dedicated to glass objects, called “Scanning from Heating”. In contrast to classical active triangulation techniques that acquire the reflection of visible light, we measure the thermal emission of the heated surface. A laser source is geometrically calibrated with a thermal sensor to extract a cloud of 3D points from infrared images. Considering the thermo-physical properties of metals, we present a theoretical model of heat exchanges that are induced by the process, helping to demonstrate its feasibility on metallic materials. With a finite element analysis solver, results give some important indications about the conception and the settings of the experimental solution. A first device has been designed in order to validate the 3D digitization process on specular surfaces, with various geometries and compositions. Furthermore, a comparison of our results with those of a conventional system shows the versatility of our technique. Actually, from metallic samples with the same dimensions but various surface states, we prove that the accuracy of the 3D acquisition is not affected by the surface roughness variations. Finally, according to some practical observations, a 3D scanner prototype has been designed to improve the efficiency of the first system

Résumé Ce travail de thèse concerne le frottement et la dynamique d’un contact glissant entre deux plans secs et rugueux soumis à une faible charge normale. La vibration normale, et le bruit qui en résulte, sont associés à l’excitation induite au cours du glissement par les deux topographies aléatoires des solides en regard. Des mesures expérimentales de l’accélération verticale d’un patin rugueux soumis à son propre poids et en glissement stationnaire sur une piste rugueuse ont permis d’identifier et de caractériser une transition entre deux régimes : un régime de contact ininterrompu entre les solides à basses vitesses et un régime de sauts pour des vitesses plus élevées. Pour ce dernier, la dynamique est gouvernée par de très nombreux impacts entre aspérités que nous avons caractérisés sur le plan statistique (nombre de chocs, durées entre chocs, forces d’impact, etc.). Ces deux régimes conduisent à des comportements en frottement bien distincts. Une des originalités de cette recherche a été de confirmer les scénarios suggérés par les mesures accélérométriques à l’aide d’une mesure haute fréquence des variations temporelles de la résistance électrique de contact au cours du glissement. En améliorant la résolution temporelle des chocs, ces mesures apportent un éclairage dynamique sur la problématique du contact électrique rugueux. Pour interpréter ces résultats expérimentaux, nous avons revisité le modèle standard du Bouncing Ball. Il décrit une bille soumise à la gravité, et rebondissant sur une table animée d’un mouvement vertical aléatoire, représentatif de l’excitation stochastique induite par les topographies de surfaces en glissement. Nous avons introduit pour la première fois dans le modèle un temps de corrélation pour l’excitation aléatoire et montré son influence sur la dynamique des rebonds. Ce temps de corrélation est directement relié aux longueurs de corrélations des surfaces en contact et à la vitesse de glissement. Ce modèle revisité permet in fine une bonne prédiction de la vitesse de transition entre les deux régimes observés expérimentalement. / This work deals with the friction and dynamics of a sliding contact between two dry and rough surfaces subjected to a low normal load. The normal vibration and the resulting noise are associated with the excitation induced during slip by the random topographies of both solids. Experimental measurements of the vertical acceleration of a rough slider subjected to its own weight and steadily sliding on a rough plate enabled identification and characterization of a transition between two regimes: An uninterrupted contact regime at low speeds and a regime of jumps at higher speeds. For the latter, the dynamics are governed by many impacts between asperities that we have characterized statistically (number of shocks, duration between shocks, impact forces, etc.). These two regimes lead to distinct frictional behaviors. One of the originalities of this research was to confirm the scenarii suggested by the accelerometric measurements through high-frequency monitoring of the temporal evolution of the electrical contact resistance during sliding. By improving the temporal resolution of shocks, these measurements provide a dynamics picture of the problem of rough electrical contact. To interpret these experimental results, we have revisited the standard Bouncing Ball model. It describes a ball subjected to gravity, and bouncing on a table animated by a random vertical motion, representative of the stochastic excitation induced by the topographies of sliding surfaces. We improved the model by introducing a correlation time for the random excitation and showed its influence on the dynamics of the bounces. This correlation time is directly related to the correlation lengths of the surfaces in contact and to the sliding velocity. This revisited model enables a good prediction of the speed at which the transition between the two regimes is observed experimentally.

Cette étude réalisée dans le cadre du procédé SPS (Suspension Plasma Spraying) a pour but de mieux appréhender les mécanismes de formation des lamelles résultant de l'impact de particules submicroniques par une approche adimensionnelle. Cette approche repose sur la diminution de la vitesse d'impact à l'échelle micrométrique (40 µm) pour se rapprocher des conditions d'impact des particules sub-microniques (300 nm). Un banc dédié permet d'étudier la dynamique d'étalement de gouttes micrométriques. Cette étude comprend - une étude expérimentale de l'étalement de gouttes isolées durant le procédé, - une approche adimensionnelle comparant les comportements à l'étalement de gouttes aux échelles micrométrique et sub-micrométrique, - une étude de la morphologie des lamelles avec la rugosité des substrats. Les résultats acquis permettent de définir une rugosité la mieux adaptée à un étalement maximal des lamelles aux deux échelles de mesure et d'éviter la présence de défauts à l'interface dépôt/substrat. Des essais de tractions sur des dépôts projetés montreront que le profil de rugosité joue un rôle décisif sur l'adhérence des dépôts. / As part of the Suspension Plasma Spraying process (SPS), this study aims at a better understanding of the impact behavior of sub-micrometric droplets. Using a dimensionless approach, the governing mechanisms of splat formation are studied. This approach is based on the velocity decrease of the micrometric droplet (40 µm), in order to be closer to sub-micrometric particle impact conditions. A specific test bench is used to study the dynamic flattening of micrometric droplets. This work includes - an experimental study of the impact of single droplets on a substrate, - a dimensionless approach to compare flattening behaviors of micrometric and sub-micrometric droplets - a study of splat morphology related to the substrate roughness. The results allow to define the substrate roughness for maximum splat flattening for both measuring scales, and to prevent the formation of any defects at the coating / substrate interface.

Le processus d'érosion éolienne peut entraîner plusieurs conséquences environnementales: la désertification, la dégradation des sols, la pollution de l'air, etc. Cette dernière est liée aux émissions de particules de matériaux granulaires couramment trouvés sur des sites industriels tels que le minerai et le charbon. La distribution granulométrique de ces matériaux consiste habituellement en un mélange d'une large gamme de diamètres, qui comprennent des particules plus grosses qui ne sont pas érodables même avec de fortes rafales de vent. Les particules non érodables jouent un rôle protecteur pour les particules érodables, en recouvrant la surface et en réduisant ses émissions. L'objectif principal de cette thèse est d'estimer plus précisément les émissions dues à l'érosion éolienne compte tenu de l'influence du pavage causée par des particules non érodables. Un modèle analytique a été proposé pour quantifier les émissions des lits de particules et des tas de stockage avec une large distribution granulométrique. Les effets du processus de pavage sont incorporés dans le modèle par la diminution de la vitesse de frottement moyenne sur la surface érodable puisque les particules non érodables s'accumulent. Des travaux antérieurs ont défini une relation mathématique entre l'évolution de la vitesse de frottement sur la surface érodable et la géométrie des éléments de rugosité. Néanmoins, l’equation n'est valable que pour des taux de couverture de particules non érodables limités. Des simulations numériques ont été effectuées dans ce travail pour étendre cette relation afin d'inclure d'autres cas rencontrés dans des situations réelles (avec de plus grandes quantités de particules non érodables). Le modèle d'émission proposé décrit la relation entre la valeur minimale de la vitesse de frottement (à laquelle les émissions cessent), en tirant parti des résultats numériques, et la profondeur finale érodée du lit, qui fournit à son tour la masse émise. Des expériences en soufflerie ont été réalisées afin de mieux comprendre le phénomène de pavage et estimer les émissions d'un lit de particules contenant une distribution de taille bimodale. Les résultats expérimentaux ont également été utilisés pour valider la modélisation, y compris la masse émise globale et les caractéristiques finales de la surface du lit. Un bon accord a été trouvé entre les résultats expérimentaux et modélisés pour les émissions globales et la profondeur de lit érodé. Le modèle d'érosion a été étendu pour l'application dans les tas de stockage. Dans ce cas, l'érodabilité des particules est plus complexe, puisque la vitesse de frottement et les conditions de seuil ne sont pas spatialement homogènes. L'idée du modèle était de subdiviser le tas en isosurfaces dans lesquelles les conditions de seuil et la vitesse de frottement sont constantes, et traiter chacune de ces zones comme une source différente où le modèle d'émission peut être appliqué. Des expériences en soufflerie ont été réalisées afin d'estimer les émissions d'un tas de sable contenant une distribution de taille bimodale. Les résultats modélisés et expérimentaux ont été comparés pour la configuration d'un tas isolé et un bon accord a été trouvé entre la masse émise estimée et mesurée. L'impact de la présence d'un bâtiment et d'un tas de stockage parallèle successif sur l'émission globale de particules a également été évalué. Des expériences en soufflerie et des simulations numériques ont été effectuées pour plusieurs configurations, en évaluant les effets de: (i) l'orientation du vent, (ii) la vitesse du vent, (iii) la distance entre l'obstacles et (iv) la quantité de particules non érodables. Il a été constaté que les interférences de l'écoulement entre les obstacles augmentent les émissions. Par conséquent, toutes les perturbations du vent ont un impact significatif et doivent être prises en compte dans l'estimation et la modélisation des émissions de poussières. / Wind erosion process can lead to several environmental consequences: desertification, land degradation, air pollution, etc. This last one is related to particulate matter emissions from granular materials commonly found on industrial sites, such as ore and coal. The particle size distribution of these granular materials usually consist of a mixture of a wide range of diameters, which include larger particles that are non-erodible even with strong gusts of wind. The non-erodible particles play a protective role for erodible particles, paving the surface and reducing emissions. The main objective of this thesis is to estimate more accurately emissions due to wind erosion considering the influence of the pavement caused by non-erodible particles. An analytical model was proposed to quantify emissions from particle beds and stockpiles with a wide size distribution. The effects of pavement process are incorporated in the model through the decrease of the mean friction velocity on the erodible surface as the non-erodible particles accumulate. Previous works have defined a mathematical relation between the evolution of the friction velocity over the erodible surface and the geometry of the roughness elements. Nonetheless, the formulation was only valid to limited cover rates of non-erodible particles. Numerical simulations were carried out in this work to extend the formulation in order to include other cases encountered in real situations (with larger amounts of non-erodible particles). The proposed emission model describes the relationship between the minimum value of friction velocity (at which emissions cease), taking advantage of the numerical findings, and the final eroded depth of the bed, which in turn, provides the emitted mass. Wind tunnel experiments were carried out in order to better understand the pavement phenomenon and estimate emissions from a bed of particles containing a bimodal size distribution. The experimental results were also used to validate the modeling, including the global emitted mass and the final characteristics of the bed surface. A good agreement was found between experimental and modeled results for the global emissions and the bed eroded depth. The erosion model was extended for application in stockpiles. In this case, the erodibility of the particles is more complex as the friction velocity and the threshold conditions are not spatially homogeneous. The idea of the model was to subdivide the pile in isosurfaces in which the threshold conditions and the friction velocity are constant and then treat each one of these areas as a different source where the emission model can be applied. Wind tunnel experiments were carried out in order to estimate emissions from a sand pile containing a bimodal size distribution. The modeled and the experimental results were compared for the configuration of an isolated stockpile and a good agreement was found between the estimated and the measured emitted mass. The impact of the presence of a building and a successive parallel stockpiles on the overall particles emission was also evaluated. Wind tunnel experiments and numerical simulations were carried out for several configurations evaluating the effects of: (i) main wind flow orientation, (ii) wind flow velocity, (iii) gap between the obstacle and (iv) amount of non-erodible particles. It was found that the flow interferences between the obstacles increase emissions. Therefore, all wind perturbations have a significant impact and have to be accounted in dust emission estimation and modeling. / O processo de erosão eólica pode levar a várias consequências ambientais: desertificação, degradação da terra, poluição do ar, etc. Esta última está relacionada com as emissões de partículas provenientes de materiais granulares comumente encontrados em indústrias, como minério e carvão. A distribuição granulométrica destes materiais normalmente consiste em uma mistura com uma ampla gama de tamanhos, incluindo partículas maiores que não são erodíveis mesmo com fortes rajadas de vento. As partículas não erodíveis desempenham um papel protetor para as partículas erodíveis, pavimentando a superfície e reduzindo as emissões. O objetivo principal desta tese é estimar com maior acurácia as emissões devidas à erosão eólica considerando a influência da pavimentação causada pelas partículas não-erodíveis. Um modelo analítico foi proposto para quantificar as emissões de leitos de partículas e pilhas com ampla distribuição granulométrica. Os efeitos do processo da pavimentação são incorporados no modelo por meio da diminuição da velocidade de fricção média na superfície erodível à medida que as partículas nãoerodíveis se acumulam. Trabalhos anteriores definiram uma relação matemática entre a evolução da velocidade de fricção na superfície erodível e a geometria dos elementos rugosos. No entanto, a formulação é válida apenas para limitadas taxas de cobertura de partículas não-erodíveis (< 12%). Simulações numéricas foram realizadas neste trabalho para estender a formulação de modo a incluir outros casos encontrados em situações reais (com maiores quantidades de partículas nãoerodíveis). O modelo de emissão proposto descreve a relação entre o valor mínimo da velocidade de fricção (para qual as emissões cessam), utilizando os resultados numéricos, e a profundidade final erodida do leito, que, por sua vez, fornece a massa emitida. Experimentos em túnel de vento foram realizados para melhor compreender o fenômeno da pavimentação e estimar as emissões de um leito de partículas contendo uma distribuição granulométrica bimodal. Os resultados experimentais foram também utilizados para validar a modelagem, incluindo a massa global emitida e as características finais da superfície do leito. Uma boa concordância foi encontrada entre os resultados experimentais e modelados para as emissões globais e a profundidade erodida do leito. O modelo de erosão foi estendido para aplicação em pilhas de estocagem. Neste caso, a erodibilidade das partículas é mais complexa, uma vez que a velocidade de fricção e as condições de limiar não são espacialmente homogêneas. A ideia do modelo é subdividir a pilha em isosuperfícies em que as condições de limiar e a velocidade de fricção são constantes e, em seguida, tratar cada uma dessas áreas como uma fonte diferente onde o modelo de emissão pode ser aplicado. Foram realizados ensaios experimentais em túnel de vento para estimar as emissões de uma pilha de areia contendo uma distribuição de tamanho bimodal. Os resultados experimentais e modelados foram comparados para a configuração de uma pilha isolada (orientada 60 e 90° em relação a direção do escoamento) e uma boa concordância foi encontrada entre a massa estimada e a emitida. O impacto na emissão da presença de um edifício e de uma pilha de estocagem sucessiva também foi avaliado. Experimentos em túnel de vento e simulações numéricas foram realizados para várias configurações avaliando os efeitos de: (i) orientação do vento, (ii) velocidade do vento, (iii) espaçamento entre os obstáculos e (iv) quantidade de partículas não erodíveis. Verificou-se que as interferências do escoamento entre os obstáculos aumentam as emissões. Portanto, todas as perturbações no escoamento têm um impacto significativo e devem ser contabilizadas na estimativa e modelagem de emissões de partículas.

Cette thèse est une partie du projet ONEMA pour le dimensionnement des passes à poissons et pour l’amélioration de la continuité écologique des cours d’eau. Ce travail s’est concentré sur les passes à poissons naturelles qui présentent des avantages de coût et paysager. Il s’agit d’un écoulement à forte pente autour des blocs (macro-rugosités) régulièrement repartis en quinconce avec des grands nombres de Froude. Les conditions hydrodynamiques sont alors très diverses, et peuvent être franchissables par un nombre élargi d’espèces de poisson. Ce mémoire présente les travaux réalisés à l’Institut de Mécanique des Fluides de Toulouse (IMFT). Afin d’étudier l’écoulement dans ces passes, on va mener des expériences sur des canaux réduits ainsi que des simulations numériques à l’aide du modèle Telemac 2D. L’objectif est de mieux connaître la structure de l’écoulement en fonction des conditions hydrauliques et géométriques comme le nombre, la forme et la taille des macro-rugosités. Plus particulièrement, la compréhension de l’interaction de phénomènes physiques généralement étudiés séparément, tels que le passage en régime torrentiel, l’interaction de sillage ou l’écoulement autour de macro-rugosités, a été recherchée. Des relations hauteur-débit ont été établies permettant une aider au dimensionnement des passes naturelles. Elles fournissent des critères de franchissement comme les vitesses maximales, la puissance dissipée ou la hauteur d’eau minimale. Pour atteindre une description plus locale de l’écoulement, des mesures de Vélocimétrie Acoustiques Doppler ont été conduites. Elles ont aussi permis de définir la plage de validité du modèle numérique 2D (Telemac). Ce modèle a alors était utilisé pour extrapoler les critères de franchissement pour des configurations non testées expérimentalement. Finalement, les connaissances sur l’écoulement ont été synthétisées pour définir des préconisations générales de dimensionnement. La précision des relations établies en laboratoire a pu aussi être vérifiée sur des passes réelles. L’hydrodynamique de ces passes est maintenant suffisamment connue pour savoir si un poisson peut remonter le courant et se reposer. Il restera à s’assurer que leur attractivité soit bonne et que des phénomènes liés aux échelles de longueurs de la turbulence ne présentent un obstacle au franchissement. / This thesis is supported by an ONEMA project for the design of fishways and improve ecological continuity of rivers. This work focused on nature-like fish passes that have cost and landscaped appearance advantages. There is a steep flow around the blocks (macro-roughness) regularly distributed in a staggered configuration with large Froude numbers. The hydrodynamic conditions are sufficiently different to be passable by an expanded number of fish species. This thesis presents the work carried out at the Institute of Fluid Mechanics of Toulouse (IMFT). To study the flow in these passes, experiments are conducted on physical models and numerical simulations using the Telemac 2D model. The goal is to better understand the flow structure based on hydraulic and geometric conditions such as the number, shape and size of macro-roughness. In particular, we considered the interaction of physical phenomena usually studied separately such that the passage in supercritical regime, the interaction of wake or flow around macro-roughness. The stage-discharge relationships were established to assist in the design of nature-like passes. They provide criteria useful for passability such as maximum speeds, power dissipation or minimal water height. To reach a local description of the flow measurements with an Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter were conducted. They also helped to define the valid range of the 2D model. This model was then used to extrapolate passability criteria for untested experimental configurations. Finally, the knowledge on flow has been synthesized to define general recommendations sizing. It has also been able to verify on real scale passes, the accuracy of the relations established in the laboratory. The hydrodynamics of these passes is now sufficiently described to know if a fish can swim upstream and rest. It will remain to ensure that their attractiveness is good and that phenomena related to the turbulence length scales do not present an obstacle to the fish passage.

In this thesis a numerical study has been undertaken to investigate turbulent flow and heat transfer in a number of flow problems, representing the gas-cooled reactor core flows. The first part of the research consisted of a meticulous assessment of various advanced RANS models of fluid turbulence against experimental and numerical data for buoyancy-modified mixed convection flows, such flows being representative of low-flow-rate flows in the cores of nuclear reactors, both presently-operating Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors (AGRs) and proposed ‘Generation IV’ designs. For this part of the project, an in-house code (‘CONVERT’), a commercial CFD package (‘STAR-CD’) and an industrial code (‘Code_Saturne’) were used to generate results. Wide variations in turbulence model performance were identified. Comparison with the DNS data showed that the Launder-Sharma model best captures the phenomenon of heat transfer impairment that occurs in the ascending flow case; v^2-f formulations also performed well. The k-omega-SST model was found to be in the poorest agreement with the data. Cross-code comparison was also carried out and satisfactory agreement was found between the results.The research described above concerned flow in smooth passages; a second distinct contribution made in this thesis concerned the thermal-hydraulic performance of rib-roughened surfaces, these being representative of the fuel elements employed in the UK fleet of AGRs. All computations in this part of the study were undertaken using STAR-CD. This part of the research took four continuous and four discrete design factors into consideration including the effects of rib profile, rib height-to-channel height ratio, rib width-to-height ratio, rib pitch-to-height ratio, and Reynolds number. For each design factor, the optimum configuration was identified using the ‘efficiency index’. Through comparison with experimental data, the performance of different RANS turbulence models was also assessed. Of the four models, the v^2-f was found to be in the best agreement with the experimental data as, to a somewhat lesser degree were the results of the k-omega-SST model. The k-epsilon and Suga models, however, performed poorly. Structured and unstructured meshes were also compared, where some discrepancies were found, especially in the heat transfer results. The final stage of the study involved a simulation of a simplified 3-dimensional representation of an AGR fuel element using a 30 degree sector configuration. The v^2-f model was employed and comparison was made against the results of a 2D rib-roughened channel in order to assess the validity and relevance of the precursor 2D simulations of rib-roughened channels. It was shown that although a 2D approach is extremely useful and economical for ‘parametric studies’, it does not provide an accurate representation of a 3D fuel element configuration, especially for the velocity and pressure coefficient distributions, where large discrepancies were found between the results of the 2D channel and azimuthal planes of the 3D configuration.

Probe microscopy techniques (Atomic Force Microscopy and Kelvin Force Microscopy) have been shown to be instrumental in the analysis of samples; such as resists and nanostructured materials. Through these techniques detailed surface information has been derived, including information such as surface roughness and surface charge distribution. Poly(Methylmethacrylate) (PMMA), remains at the forefront of resists utilised in e-beam lithography in the electronics industry. Surface morphology (specifically roughness) analysis remains a key parameter of investigation, particularly in the examination of polymeric films. This research aimed to investigate PMMA based electron beam resists as well as a novel (SML) resist material in terms of suitability for electron-beam lithography. Various concentrations (5, 7, 8, 9 and 11% w/v) of both PMMA and the novel resist material were spin-coated onto silica substrates. Samples were baked at 180oC for 3 minutes and examined under ultra-high vacuum using Omicron AFM/SPM to derive RMS values in order to assess roughness in addition to thickness measurements taken. SML resists were then utilised in the development of a new digital etch onto InGaAs/InAlAs wafer. The novel, SML resist material was found to offer smoother resist surface even at higher concentrations of polymer, a difference which was observed to be statistically significant (p<0.01). The SML resist was also notably thicker than the comparable PMMA resist (p>0.05) indicating that lower concentrations of the novel resist would be required to achieve the required resist thickness. Digital etching rates were found to be in agreement with previously documented findings. SML was concluded to be a superior resist in terms of thickness and smoothness, with AFM being further established as an essential characterization technique.

Lors de la mise en oeuvre du béton dans les coffrages ou lors du pompage du béton, une couche, appelée couche limite, constituée d’eau et de fines, se forme près de l’interface. Diverses études ont montré que le frottement à l’interface béton-paroi dépend essentiellement des propriétés rhéologiques de la couche limite, de sa composition et de la rugosité de la paroi. L’objectif principal de cette étude est de comprendre les phénomènes se produisant à l’interface à l’échelle des grains. Toutefois, compte tenu de la complexité de deux corps en contact : couche limite et paroi, le système étudié est simplifié. La complexité du matériau béton a ainsi été simplifiée, en considérant que ce milieu est constitué de grains sphériques monodisperses et sans cohésion. Par ailleurs, la rugosité de la paroi formée en réalité par des aspérités irrégulières, est représentée par des géométries simples. L’étude repose sur l’utilisation de deux modèles, un modèle analogique et un modèle numérique.L’approche analogique est constituée d’un dispositif expérimental monté sur le tribomètre. Le cisaillement s’effectue en déplaçant, une baguette crénelée placée sous un empilement de billes confiné par une masse. Trois baguettes représentant trois rugosités différentes sont utilisées. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent que les conditions à l’interface (vitesse, rugosité, pression) influent sur le frottement et sur les mécanismes à l’interface.L’approche numérique est basée sur la méthode des éléments distincts. La rugosité de la paroi est modélisée par un assemblage de sphères collées sur un plan mobile. Les résultats obtenus montrent une bonne concordance entre les approches numérique et expérimentale. De même, l’étude numérique réalisée en conditions périodiques et pour différentes rugosités montre que les conditions à l’interface influent sur le frottement et sur le comportement du milieu près de l’interface (profils de vitesses, épaisseur de la couche cisaillée, etc.). / When fresh concrete is placed into formworks or during concrete pumping, a layer, called boundary layer, consisting of water and fines, is formed at the interface. Various studies have shown that the friction between the concrete and the wall (form or pipe) is closely linked to the rheological properties of the boundary layer, its composition and the wall roughness. This study aims at understanding the wall-concrete interface phenomena at a grain scale. However, due to the complex nature of the two bodies in contact: boundary layer and wall, a simplified system has been considered. The concrete has been simplified by assuming that it consists of monodispersed spherical grains and without cohesion. Moreover, the irregular asperities of the wall roughness are represented by simple geometries. The study is based on the use of two models, an analog model and a numerical model.The analog approach consists of an experimental device fitted on the tribometer. The test consists in moving rough plates under stacks of confined monodispersed beads. The roughness of the plate is represented by crenels. Three plates representing different roughnesses are used. The experimental results show that the friction and the interface mechanisms are affected by the interface conditions (velocity, roughness, pressure).The numerical approach is based on the Discrete Element Method (DEM). The wall roughness is modeled by an assembly of spheres fixed on a moving plane. The results obtained by numerical simulations compared with those of the analog model show a good confrontation. As well, the numerical study carried out with periodic boundary conditions and for different roughnesses shows that the interface conditions affect the friction and the behavior of the medium near the interface (velocities profiles, thickness of the shear layer, etc.).

Foi realizada uma avaliação in vitro da influência de três variáveis sobre a rugosidade, porosidade, microdureza, sorção e solubilidade de uma resina acrílica para coroas provisórias: ambiente de polimerização (ar/água), temperatura e pressão de acordo com 4 técnicas de manipulação, diretas e indiretas. Os corpos de prova foram confeccionados utilizando a resina poli (metilmetacrilato) (PMMA) Dencorcor nº 66. A rugosidade de superfície (Ra) foi verificada por um rugosímetro/perfilômetro. Na análise da porosidade foi utilizado um método quantitativo de contagem dos poros por área delimitada utilizando um microscópio comparador. A análise da microdureza foi feita antes e depois da simulação do desafio ácido ocorrido na cavidade bucal. Para a análise de sorção e solubilidade os espécimes foram submetidos a ciclos de hidratação e ressecamento e através da comparação entre as pesagens iniciais e finais foi possível estabelecer os resultados. Os resultados de Rugosidade foram favoráveis às técnicas indiretas (grupos I e II) com médias de Ra=0,141m e 0,181m, respectivamente, seguidos pelas técnicas diretas (grupos III e IV) com Ra=0,373m e 0,908m. Os resultados de porosidade foram de 0,8 poros por área delimitada para o grupo I, seguido do grupo II com 0,9 poros; grupo III com 7,2 poros e grupo IV com 124 poros. Os resultados de microdureza para todos os grupos evidenciaram diminuição da dureza após a ciclagem ácida com valores que diminuíram de 14,12 para 13,03 no grupo I; de 14,06 para 12,93 no grupo II; de 13,73 para 12,71 no grupo III e de 13,47 para 12,65 no grupo IV. Os resultados de sorção foram de 1,807% para o grupo I; 1,817% para o grupo II; 2,068% para o grupo III e 2,227% para o grupo IV. E os resultados de solubilidade foram 0,036% para o grupo I; 0,054% para o grupo II; 0,184% para o grupo III e 0,212% para o grupo IV. Os maiores valores de rugosidade e porosidade foram alcançados pelos corpos-de-prova confeccionados pelas técnicas diretas e os menores valores se deram nos corpos-de-prova confeccionados segundo as técnicas indiretas e pela técnica do pincel. O desafio ácido reduziu a dureza da resina acrílica, porém não houve diferença nos testes de dureza entre os diferentes grupos. Os espécimes confeccionados pelas técnicas indiretas apresentaram menor sorção e solubilidade quando comparadas às técnicas diretas. Portanto, as técnicas indiretas de confecção de coroas provisórias devem ser preferidas às técnicas diretas. / An in vitro evaluation of the influence of three variables (polymerization medium (air/water), temperature and pressure) on roughness, porosity, microhardness, sorption and solubility of an acrylic resin for provisional crowns was conducted according to 4 techniques (direct and indirect). The samples were prepared using a poly (methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) resin Dencor color No 66. The surface roughness (Ra) was evaluated with a perfilometer. Porosity was analyzed according a quantitative method of counting number of pores per area by using a comparator microscope. Microhardness readings were made before and after acid challenge simulation as in the oral cavity. For sorption and solubility analysis, specimens were subjected to successive cycles of dampening and dehydration to make comparisons of the initial and final weights. Roughness results were lower for indirect techniques (groups I and II) with averages of Ra = 0.141m and 0.181m, respectively, followed by direct techniques (groups III and IV) with Ra = 0.373m and 0.908m. Porosity results were 0.8 pores per area for the group I, 0.9 pores for group II, 7.2 pores for group III and 124 pores for group IV. All groups showed a decrease in hardness after acid cycling with values that ranged from 14.12 to 13.03 in group I, 14.06 to 12.93 in group II, 13.73 to 12.71 in group III, and 13.47 to 12.65 in group IV. Sorption results were 1.807% in group I, 1.817% in group II, 2.068% in group III, and 2.227% in group IV. Solubility results were 0.036% in group I, 0.054% in group II, 0.184% in group III and 0.212% in group IV. Higher values of roughness and porosity were obtained by specimens made by direct technique and lower values were achieved with specimens made by indirect technique and brush technique. The acid challenge statistically decreased hardness of the acrylic resin, but there was no statistical difference among different groups. The specimens prepared by indirect techniques showed lower sorption and solubility when compared to direct techniques. The indirect techniques for making provisional crowns should be preferred compared to direct techniques.