Thesis (MSc (Biochemistry))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Due to a global lack of access to potable water, a problem particularly affecting people in developing countries and the poor, improvement on existing water purification methods are necessary to provide more cost effective, accessible and efficient methods of water purification. In drinking water systems, biofilms are a potential source of contamination, which can affect the biological stability and hygienic safety of water. In industrial water systems, biofilms can cause corrosion, resistance in flow systems and a decrease in efficiency of membranes. Nanotechnology has been identified as a technology to utilize in water purification problem solving. Alternatives to the use of chemical biocides and antibiotics need to be investigated therefore; the focus of this study was the fabrication and characterization of polymer nanofibers containing silver nanoparticles as biocide and anti-biofouling nanofibers with hydrolytic enzymes immobilized on the surface. The aim of this study was to synthesize and compare poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibers and poly (acrylonitrile) (PAN) nanofibers with silver nanoparticles to determine which type of fiber will be the most appropriate for application in water sanitation. The two types of fibers were to be compared based on morphology, silver nanoparticle content, physical distribution of silver nanoparticles, levels of silver leaching from the fibers in water, which could imply toxicity, and most importantly, anti-microbial efficacy. Back scattering electron images revealed that silver nanoparticles in PVA nanofibers were more evenly dispersed than in PAN nanofibers, but that PAN nanofibers had higher silver nanoparticle content. This was confirmed by energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. Both PVA and PAN nanofibers containing silver nanoparticles had excellent anti-microbial activity, with PVA nanofibers killing between 91% and 99% of bacteria in a contaminated water sample and PAN nanofibers killed 100%. When investigated by SEM, the biocidal effect of PAN nanofibers containing silver nanoparticles can be observed as morphological changes in the cell walls. Neither PVA nor PAN nanofibers leached silver into water. PVA is a non-toxic and biodegradable synthetic polymer, and PVA-silver nanofibers have excellent anti-microbial activity, making it applicable in water sanitation in an environmental conscious milieu. PAN nanofibers are more conductive to the formation of silver nanoparticles, have higher silver nanoparticle content, allowing the complete sanitation of pathogenically contaminated water samples. PAN nanofibers also have better longevity and strength in water, making it ideal for water filtration and sanitation in higher throughput systems. Furthermore, immobilized enzymes are being investigated as possible alternatives to inefficient conventional methods of controlling and removing biofilms from filtration systems. This study demonstrates the covalent immobilization of two industrial proteases and an amylase enzyme onto polymer nanofibers widely used in filtration membranes. Confirmed by FTIR, these nanofibers were successfully activated by amidination, allowing the covalent immobilization of respectively two serine proteases and an α-amylase onto the fibers. When inspected visually, fibers largely retained their original morphology after activation and enzyme immobilization. Immobilized enzymes were, however visible as aggregated particles on the nanofiber surfaces. The large surface area to volume ratio provided by the nanofibers as immobilization surface, allowed sufficient amounts of enzymes to be immobilized onto the fibers so that all enzymes retained above 80% of the specific activity of the free enzymes. For each of the immobilized enzymes, just below 30% of initial activity was retained after 10 repeated cycles of use. Fibers with immobilized enzymes on their surface did not support the growth of biofilms, as opposed to plain nanofibers, which did support the growth of biofilms. When considering the combined advantages of this effective immobilization process, the robustness of the enzymes used in this study, and their effectiveness against biofilms in their immobilized state, a valuable addition has been made to technology available for the control of biofilm formation on filtration membranes, and could potentially be employed to control biofilm formation in water filtration systems. A combination of anti-microbial and anti-biofouling nanofibers into a single nanofiltration product may prove to be highly applicable in water sanitation systems. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: As gevolg van 'n wêreldwye gebrek aan toegang tot drinkbare water, 'n probleem wat veral mense in ontwikkelende lande en armes raak, is dit van belang dat bestaande metodes van watersuiwering verbeter word om voorsiening te maak vir meer koste-effektiewe, toeganklike en doeltreffende metodes van watersuiwering. In drinkwater stelsels is biofilms 'n potensiële bron van besoedeling, wat die biologiese stabiliteit en die higiëniese veiligheid van water beïnvloed. In industriële waterstelsels kan biofilms tot die verwering van pyplyne lei, weerstand in die stroomstelsels veroorsaak en 'n afname in die doeltreffendheid van membrane veroorsaak. Nanotegnologie is geïdentifiseer as 'n tegnologie wat aangewend kan word in watersuiwerings probleemoplossing. Alternatiewe vir die gebruik van chemiese antimikrobiese middels moet dus ondersoek word. Hierdie studie fokus dus op die vervaardiging en karakterisering van polimeer nanovesels met silwer nanopartikels wat ingesluit is as antimikrobiese middel en anti-biofilm vesels met hidrolitiese ensieme geïmmobiliseer op die oppervlak. Die doel van hierdie studie was om poli (viniel alkohol) (PVA) nanovesels en poli (akrielonitriel) (PAN) nanovesels te sintetiseer waarby silwer nanopartikels ingesluit is, en te bepaal watter tipe vesel die mees geskikte sal wees vir die gebruik in water sanitasie. Die twee tipes vesels is met mekaar vergelyk gebaseer op morfologie, silwer nanopartikel inhoud, fisiese verspreiding van silwer nanopartikels, vlakke van silwer uitloging vanuit die vesels in water, wat toksisiteit tot gevolg kan hê, en die belangrikste, antimikrobiese effektiwiteit. Terug verstrooiing elektron beelde het aan die lig gebring dat die silwer nanopartikels in PVA nanovesels meer eweredig versprei was as in PAN nanovesels, maar dat PAN nanovesels 'n hoër silwer nanopartikel inhoud gehad het. Dit is bevestig deur “energy dispersive X-ray” (EDX) analise. Beide PVA en PAN nanovesels met silwer nanopartikels het uitstekende antimikrobiese aktiwiteit getoon, met PVA vesels wat tussen 91% en 99% bakterieë in besoedelde water monsters kon doodmaak en PAN vesels wat 100% bakterieë kon uitwis. Wanneer vesels ondersoek is met ʼn skandeer elektronmikroskoop (SEM), kon die antimikrobiese effek van PAN vesels met silwer nanopartikels as morfologiese veranderinge in die selwande waargeneem word. Nie PVA of PAN nanovesels loog silwer uit in water nie. PVA is 'n nie-toksiese en bioafbreekbare sintetiese polimeer, en PVA-silwer nanovesels het uitstekende antimikrobiese aktiwiteit, wat dit van toepassing maak op water sanitasie in ʼn omgewings bewuste milieu. PAN vesels is meer gunstig tot die vorming van silwer nanopartikels, en het 'n hoër silwer nanopartikel inhoud, dus word patogeen besoedelde water volledig gesteriliseer. PAN vesels het ook 'n beter langslewendheid en weerstandige sterkte in water, wat dit ideaal vir water filtrasie en sanitasie in hoër deursettings stelsels maak. Geïmmobiliseerde ensieme word ook ondersoek as moontlike alternatiewe tot ondoeltreffende konvensionele metodes van beheer en die verwydering van biofilms uit water stelsels. Hierdie studie toon die kovalente immobilisasie van twee industriële proteases en 'n amilase ensiem op polimeer vesels wat gebruik word in filtrasie membrane. Bevestig deur FTIR, is PAN vesels suksesvol geaktiveer deur amidinasie, sodat die kovalente immobilisasie van onderskeidelik twee serien proteases en 'n α-amilase op die vesels moontlik is. Met visuele ondersoek kan gesien word die vesels behou grootliks hul oorspronklike morfologie na aktivering en ensiem immobilisasie. Geïmmobiliseerde ensieme is egter sigbaar as saamgevoegde deeltjies op die nanovesel oppervlaktes. Die groot oppervlakarea: volume-ratio van die vesels wat dien as immobilisasie oppervlak, laat toe dat voldoende hoeveelhede van ensieme geïmmobiliseer word sodat alle ensieme meer as 80% van die spesifieke aktiwiteit van die vrye ensieme behou. Vir elk van die geïmmobiliseer ensieme, is net minder as 30% van die aanvanklike aktiwiteit behou na 10 siklusse van hergebruik. Vesels met geïmmobiliseerde ensieme op hul oppervlaktes het nie die groei van biofilms ondersteun nie, in teenstelling met gewone vesels, sonder ensieme, wat die groei van biofilms ondersteun. As die gesamentlike voordele van hierdie doeltreffende immobilisasie proses, die robuustheid van die ensieme en hulle doeltreffendheid teen biofilms in hul geïmmobiliseerde toestand in ag geneem word, is ʼn waardevolle toevoeging gemaak tot tegnologie wat beskikbaar is vir die beheer van biofilm vorming op filtrasie membrane, en dit kan potensieel gebruik word om biofilm vorming filter stelsels te beheer. Die kombinasie van anti-mikrobiese en anti-biofilm vesels in ʼn enkele nanofiltrasie produk moet nagestreef word, omdat dit hoogs van toepassing sal wees in water sterilisasie stelsels.

Thesis (M.Phil. (School of Public Management and Planning))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Water and sanitation is one of the key factors in the socio-economic development of a nation and people. Billions of people worldwide do not have access to clean water or basic sanitation leading to many health problems and developmental issues. This article discusses the challenges facing the world, South Africa and in particular the Western Cape and Cape Town in the provision of water and sanitation. For most people the desire is to have access to their own private portable water supply and their own private flush toilet connected via costly bulk water services to sewage treatment plants far away. The question posed is whether this model is sustainable into the future, given the water demands in many parts of the world affected by droughts and more violent weather cycles as a result of climate change and global warming. These factors will affect water supplies in South Africa and in particular the Western Cape and Cape Town. To answer some of the questions raised the Lynedoch EcoVillage development is discussed in detail in terms of sustainable neighbourhood planning and implementation. Sustainable Development is discussed, also various options in terms of applying ecological sanitation. The on-site water and sanitation system of the Lynedoch EcoVillage is discussed as a case study. The results of influent and effluent tests conducted by the CSIR are analysed to see whether the system is conforming to the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry standards for the use of effluent water in irrigation and re-use of water in toilets. Localised models of water and sanitation provision might thus be a way forward to satisfy the increasing demand for such services made on national and local authorities as urban areas increase in size and population.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study undertakes a scientific investigation into the social and environmental problems encountered by the Oshiwana Penduka informal settlement as a result of the lack of a proper sanitation system. This informal settlement is located on the periphery of the municipal boundaries of the town of Mariental in Southern Namibia, about 270 kilometres south of the capital, Windhoek. The unique problem faced by the settlement is the absence of sanitation facilities or sewage system as a method of solid waste management. Needless to say, the informal settlement is characterized by overcrowding, poor sanitation, lack of housing, unemployment and poverty. From the literature review, it became clear that inadequate water supply and sanitation posed serious implications to the physical environment and human health. The literature also reveals that these core challenges are propagated by the continual influx of people to urban areas and the re-birth of irregular settlements. In light of the above, the problem statements to be addressed are the following, namely: what is the impact of the absence of a proper and sustainable sanitation system on the inhabitants of the Oshiwana Penduka informal settlement and what can be done by the Mariental Municipality to address the concerns raised? The key research methods applied for this study entails individual semi-structured questionnaires and key informant groups. The answers to the interviewed questions are highlighted in chapter four and the interpretation of the research findings are constituted in the latter chapter. The hypothesis was proven false and the new model of thinking generated is suggesting that the prevailing social and environmental problems are caused by the absence of toilet facilities. It is evident to note from the study results that the negative social impact, which is being attributed by inadequate sanitation in the informal settlement, is severe and lethal to human health. In order to prove the hypothesis, data has been collected at household levels from the informal settlers. Despite the survey results which support the conventional water borne sanitation as the most preferred sanitation system, vacuum system as an ecological sanitation technology is recommended for this informal settlement. This particular sanitation system works on the principle of enhancing water conservation, recycling, reduction of health, and promotes environmental integrity. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie onderneem ʼn wetenskaplike ondersoek na die sosiale en omgewingsprobleme, wat ondervind word deur die Oshiwana Penduka informele nedersetting en die gebrek aan ʼn behoorlike sanitasie stelsel. Hierdie betrokke informele nedersetting is geleë aan die buitewyke van die munisipale grense van die dorp Mariental. Die dorp Mariental is geleë in die suidelike deel van Namibië, ongeveer 270 km suid van die hoofstad Windhoek. Die unieke problem wat hierdie nedersetting ondervind is die afwesigheid van sanitasie fasiliteite of ʼn rioolstelsel wat ʼn soliede metode van goeie rioolbeheer is. Hierdie nedersetting word gekenmerk deur oorbevolking, swak sanitasie, gebrek aan behuising, werkloosheid en armoede. Vanuit die literatuurstudie, het dit aan die lig gekom dat onvoldoende water toevoer en sanitasie ernstige implikasies vir die fisiese omgewing en die menslike gesondheid inhou. Die literatuur het ook aan die lig gebring dat hierdie basiese probleme vererger word deur die aanhoudende invloei van mense na die stedelike gebiede. In die lig van bogenoemde, is die probleemstelling wat aangespreek moet word, soos volg: wat is die gevolge van ʼn gebrek aan ʼn behoorlike en volhoubare sanitasiestelsel vir die inwoners van die informele nedersetting en wat kan die Mariental Munisipaliteit doen om hierdie problem aan te spreek? Die navorsingsmetode wat aangewend word bevat individuele semi- gestruktureerde vraelyste en sleutel fokusgroepe. Die antwoorde op die onderhoudsvraelyste word vervat in hoofstuk vier en die vertolking van die navorsingsbevinding word in die daaropvolgende hoofstuk aangebied. Die hipoteses was verkeerd bewys en die alternatief wat gegenereer is, stel voor dat die bestaande sosiale en omgewingsprobleme veroorsaak word deur die afwesigheid van toilet fasiliteite. Ten spyte van die navorsingsresultate, wat ʼn watersanitasiestelsel as die meeste verkose stelsel ondersteun, word ʼn suigstelsel as ekologiese volhoubare tegnologie vir hierdie informele nedersetting aanbeveel. Hierdie betrokke sanitasiestelsel toon verskeie voordele, onder andere bewaring van water, vermindering van gesondheidsprobleme en die bevordering van omgewingsvolhoubaarheid.

Introduction: Millions of children worldwide die before they reach their fifth birthday. Approximately 50% of all deaths in children are associated with malnutrition. Although remarkable improvements have been seen in the past few decades, child malnutrition remains a major public health problem in Ethiopia. Malnutrition has been linked to various morbidities and as the underlying cause of 57% of mortality in the country. It is caused by complex and multidimensional biological, social economic, and environmental factors. There are scarce literatures examining the environmental factors, such as access to water and sanitation, on the likelihood of child malnutrition as measured by stunting, wasting, and underweight in Ethiopia, which the current study sought to investigate. Aim: The primary aim of this study was to examine the relationship between households’ access to water and sanitation facilities and the likelihood that a child will become stunted or wasted or underweight. Methods: The study utilized a nationally representative data from 2011 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey. The sample size was 9,611 children aged 0-59 months. A weighted descriptive statistical analysis was performed to examine the frequency distribution of the study’s primary independent variables (sanitation and water), dependent variables (childhood stunting, wasting, and underweight), and all other variables included in the study. Weighted bivariate analysis was conducted using logistic regression to quantify association between stunting, wasting, and being underweight and different independent variables. Weighted multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to control for potential confounders while examining the relationship between the primary independent and dependent variables. Odds ratios, 95% confidence limits, and p-value were calculated. We considered three sets of potential confounders: child’s (child’s gender, child’s age, and child’s size at birth diarrheal disease, fever), maternal (maternal education) and household characteristics (maternal BMI, place of residence, wealth index, stool disposal, time to get water). Only variables that showed significant association (p-value Main results: Approximately 44%, 10%, and 29% of the children under-five years of age were stunted, wasted, and underweight, respectively. About 54% of the study population used unimproved source of drinking water and about 82% used unimproved sanitation facility. Our bivariate logistic analysis revealed that children in households with unimproved source of drinking water had higher odds of stunting compared to children in households with improved drinking water source (OR: 1.2; 95% CL 1.02-1.34). Adjustment for child’s characteristics yielded AOR: 1.2; 95% CL 1.0-1.4. Addition of maternal characteristics attenuated this association (AOR: 1.1; 95% CL 1.0-1.3 1.0; 95% CL 0.8-1.2). Finally, inclusion of household characteristics showed stunting was not associated with unimproved source of drinking water (AOR: 1.0; 95% 0.8-1.2). The bivariate analysis revealed household access to unimproved source of drinking water was not significantly associated with wasting (OR: 1.0; 95% CL 0.8-1.3) and underweight (OR: 1.2; 95% CL 1.0-1.4). Adjustment of child, maternal, and household characteristic showed an inverse association between source of drinking water and wasting (AOR: 0.7; 95% CL 0.6-0.9). In the bivariate analysis, access to unimproved sanitation was significantly associated with stunting (OR: 1.3; 95% CL 1.02-1.74) and underweight (OR: 1.5; 95% CL 1.1-2.1). Compared to children living in homes with access to improved sanitation facility, children in household with unimproved sanitation facility had 1.4 increased odds of being stunted (95% CL 1.1-1.9) after adjustment for child’s characteristics. Adjustment of child, maternal, and household characteristics attenuated this association (AOR: 1.1; 95% CL 0.8-1.5). Children in household with unimproved sanitation facility had higher odds of being underweight after adjusting for child characteristics (AOR: 1.6; 95% CL 1.2-2.2). Addition of maternal characteristic reduced the association (AOR: 1.5; 95% CL 1.1-2.0). Finally, the addition of household characteristics further attenuated this association (AOR: 1.4; 95% CL 1.1-1.9). Children from households with improved water but unimproved sanitation had higher odds of wasting and being underweight compared to children living in household with both services: AORs adjusted for child’s characteristics were 2.3 (95% CL 1.3-4.3) for wasting and 2.4 (95% CL 1.6-3.6) for underweight; when maternal characteristics were included, AORs were 2.2 (95% CL 1.2-4.1) and 2.1 (95% 1.4-3.3) for wasting and underweight, correspondingly; finally, when household characteristics were included AORs were 2.0 (95% CL 1.1-3.9) and 1.9 (95% CL 1.2-3.0), respectively. Conclusion: Our results suggest that household access to unimproved source of drinking water and sanitation increase the likelihood of malnutrition. Therefore, initiatives to increase access to improved sources of drinking water and sanitation facilities along with nutritional intervention could help alleviate the high burden of malnutrition in Ethiopia.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Urban Planning and Environmental Management / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

<p>Användandet av obehandlat avloppsvatten inom jordbruket är en växande företeelse i många delar av världen. Speciellt i vattenfattiga områden där avloppsvattnet ses som en värdefull och pålitlig resurs. Det höga näringsinnehållet minskar behovet av konstgödsel och detta ökar böndernas inkomster. Men med användandet av avloppsvattnet följer vissa hälsorisker. Bland annat har man sett en högre förekomst av inälvsmaskar hos bönder som använder orenat avloppsvatten jämfört med de som använder rent vatten. Den här vattenkvalitetstudien har utförts längs floden Musi i Andhra Pradesh, Indien. Musi rinner igenom staden Hyderabad och mycket av stadens avloppsvatten dumpas i floden. Nedströms Hyderabad används detta vatten för bevattning. Längs med floden är dammar byggda, för att avleda vattnet i bevattningskanaler. Reservoirer bildas då flödeshastigheten minskar. Studieområdet sträcker sig från Hyderabad och 28.7 km nedströms. Hypotesen var att reservoirerna fungerar som biodammar och syftet var att kvantifiera dammarnas inverkan på vattenkvaliteten och utvärdera dess lämplighet utifrån ett hälso- och jordbruksperspektiv. Inom studieområdet är reningen med avseende på BOD, Nematoder och E coli 86,9%, 99,9% respektive 99,9%. Trots att reningen är så hög överstiger Nematod- och E coli-koncentrationerna Världshälsoorganisationens riktlinjer och utgör en hälsorisk för bönder och konsumenter. Syre- och salthalt ökar nedströms och den höga salthalten kan ha negativ inverkan på jordbrukets avkastning. Genom att titta på reningsmönster och förändring av olika vattenkvalitetsparametrar är en av slutsatserna av detta arbete att reningen i dammarna motsvarar den rening som sker i de anaeroba bassängerna i ett biodammsystem.</p> / <p>The use of untreated domestic sewage in agriculture is a growing practice in many parts of the world. It is being looked upon as a valuable and reliable resource in water scarce communities. Wastewater is usually rich in nutrients and the use results in high yields without the need for artificial fertilisers. But with the use of untreated wastewater follows a number of associated health risks, e.g. a higher prevalence of helminth infections has been seen among wastewater users compared to non-users. This water quality study was performed along the River Musi in Andhra Pradesh, India. The Musi River flows through the city of Hyderabad carrying the most of the town’s wastewater. Downstream of Hyderabad the wastewater is used by farmers for irrigation. Along the river weirs are constructed which diverts the irrigation water into canals and reservoirs are formed where the flow velocity slows down. The study area stretches from Hyderabad and 28.7 km downstream. The hypothesis was that the existing irrigation infrastructure acts like Wastewater Stabilisation Ponds and the aim was to quantify the impact of the weirs on water quality and to evaluate the irrigation water quality in reference to associated health risks and agricultural suitability. Within the study area the BOD, E coli and Nematode removals were 86.9%, 99.9% and 99.9% respectively. Despite the high removal the E coli and Nematodes, the concentrations exceed WHO guidelines for unrestricted and restricted irrigation, and there exists an excess risk of intestinal nematode- and enteric infections for farmers. Dissolved oxygen and salinity increases downstream and due to the high salinity farmers could experience reduced crop yields. By looking at removal patterns, and the change in water quality parameters, the conclusion can be made that the reservoirs act like anaerobic ponds in a Wastewater Stabilisation Pond system.</p>

In South Africa there is a need within the milling industry for controlling food safety especially due to customer's demands and government's regulations. The best way to ensure food safety is with the implementation of a HACCP based food safety system. Therefore, the principal aim of this study was to develop a generic HACCP model for the flour milling industry. Afterwards this generic model can then be adapted for each specific mill and its needs.

Grassroots social resistance to neoliberal reforms of urban water and sanitation has taken a dynamic trajectory in the past decade, especially in Latin America. The thesis' proposition is that these struggles have undergone qualitative changes. Their previously defensive strategies are developing into propositional strategies that increasingly focus on public and community alternatives to privatisation. This politicisation and movementisation of urban WATSAN is hardly discussed by academic literature, despite it being an emerging opportunity for propublic sector reform. Thus, the inquiry concerns the role of social movements in the exploration of alternatives to privatisation and looks at transnational networks and localnational struggles. This thesis employs critical ethnographic, participant research methodology. Empirical research took place from 2004 to 2008 and developed an emergent practice of politicised social movement research. As conceptual framework, the role of social movement in urban water and sanitation is considered as a process of radical reformism and social appropriation. On this basis, the global water justice movement's emergent discursive frame is analysed and found to centre on the democratisation of public water. By means of a comparative typology theory I then analyse local and national-level social struggles and develop the concept of pro-public challenge. Two case studies further elaborate on this type of political process of sector reform. These are the Uruguayan sector reform after a national referendum in 2004; and the case of Peru, where the embedded case of the city of Huancayo developed a public-public partnership as alternative to a planned water utility privatisation. The thesis develops a meso-level qualitative analysis of the political process of movementisation of sector reform in form of matrices, contingent pathways and contingent generalisations. The central finding is that social movements at transnational and local level develop new roles in pro-public sector reform. Despite substantive impacts, their power to implement alternative paths of development was found to be limited. They run the risk of not meeting all the resulting new challenges posed by politicised participation in sector reform, failing to develop adequate strategies, resources, organisational capacity and expert knowledge.

Educating girls is advantageous for future livelihood security and socio economic development. Menstruating schoolgirls especially need to experience improved menstrual hygiene management (MHM) within schools in order to obtain quality education towards securing future as well as present wellbeing. This paper explores how menstruating schoolgirls’ opportunities are affected by insufficient water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities in schools within Sub-Saharan Africa. The required information has been gathered through a qualitative research method using scientifically based material on the situation of MHM in Sub-Saharan African schools as well as semi-structured questionnaires alongside my personal recollection of MHM. Focus has been given to the capabilities of menstruating schoolgirls under existing WASH facilities in schools analysed through the Capability Approach. Effects of poor MHM in schools are known to cause discomfort and poor constructive participation during lessons as well as decreased school attendance. A gender-based approach has also been examined which presents most schools as non-conducive towards girl’s education promotion. / Utbildning är gynnsam för deras framtida försörjningsmöjligheter samt för socioekonomisk utveckling. Menstruerande skolflickor är mest utsatta under de otillräckliga sanitetsförhållanden som råder i flera skolor söder om Sahara. Den här rapporten utforskar skolflickors förmåga att sköta deras menshygien under skolvistelsen samt hur bristande sanitetsresurser påverkar flickornas framtida utsikter och akademiska kapacitet. Undersökningen är baserad på en kombination av kvalitativa metoder och material som vetenskapliga studier, en semistrukturerade enkätundersökning samt min egen erfarenhet av menshygien i skolor söder om Sahara. Fokus har tillägnats menstruerande skolflickors möjligheter att hantera deras mens i ohygieniska förhållanden genom att koppla detta till ”The Capability Approach”. Avsaknaden av fungerande sanitetsstrukturer försämrar skolflickors välmående vilket leder till nedsatt deltagande under lektioner samt minskad skolgång vid mens. En könsbaserad utgångspunkt har det också påvisat att skolorna är mindre anpassande för flickor.

In early Victorian England, a coalition of men of Government and the local community established a centralized and uniform policy toward public health. The long and arduous campaign (1831-1875) for public health impelled the need to solve the serious social, political and economic problems spawned by the Industrial Revolution. This study concludes that Britain's leaders came to believe that Government indeed had an obligation to redress grievances created by injustice, a decision which meant the rejection of laissez-faire. Through legislation based on long study, Parliament consolidated the work of sanitation authorities, trained medical officers, and essential environmental improvements. The public sanitation program soon decreased the mortality rate by breaking the frequent cycle of cholera, typhoid, typhus, and dysentery plagues, all this notwithstanding that no doctor of that age knew that bacteria and viruses caused disease.