Ce travail est consacré à l'élaboration par voie humide (pontage, solvothermale et colloïdale) de photocatalyseur TiO2 supporté sur trois types de minéraux argileux d'origine marocaine: la stévensite, la beidellite et la palygorskite, à leurs caractérisations et finalement à l'évaluation de leurs activités photocatalytiques vis-à-vis de l'élimination en milieu aqueux du colorant anionique l'Orange G (OG) très utilisé en industrie textile. La stévensite et la beidellite sont toutes les deux des smectites de types magnésien trioctaédrique et aluminifère dioctaédrique respectivement. En revanche, la palygorskite est un minéral fibreux riche en Al doté d'un caractère dioctaédrique très marqué. Les matériaux photocatalyseurs supportés développés par le pontage de la stévensite ou de la beidellite ne révèlent pas de formation de piliers interlamellaires de TiO2, mais plutôt l'obtention dans les deux cas de matrice de TiO2 amorphe dans laquelle sont éparpillées quelques rares particules indemnes de phyllosilicates. De même, ceux à base de stévensite élaborés par la méthode solvothermale révèlent des particules du phyllosilicate désintégrées au sein d'une matrice de TiO2 toutefois cristallisée sous forme d'anatase. Néanmoins, la fonctionnalisation selon la voie colloïdale a permis d'immobiliser avec succès des nanoparticules d'anatase (10 nm) sur aussi bien des feuillets plus ou moins exfoliés de stévensite ou de beidellite que sur des fibres de palygorskite. L'anatase attachée aux particules de ces minéraux argileux demeure extraordinairement stable jusqu'à 900 °C alors que celle formée en absence de ces phyllosilicates se convertit complètement en rutile vers 650 °C. Cette stabilité remarquable de l'anatase supportée est due à l'empêchement de la croissance, par coalescence à haute température, de la taille de ses particules au-delà de la taille critique (30 nm) requise pour sa conversion en rutile relativement moins photoactive. Les essais de photocatalyse révèlent que l'activité catalytique des différents matériaux élaborés croit selon la méthode de fonctionnalisation: pontage - méthode solvothermale - voie colloïdale et aussi selon la nature du minéral argileux : stévensite - beidellite - palygorskite. En outre, les matériaux photocatalyseurs supportés, à base de beidellite ou de palygorskite, développés par la voie colloïdale, manifestent une activité deux fois supérieure à celle de la poudre commerciale TiO2 Degussa P25. Leurs particules floculent aisément, ce qui facilite leur élimination du milieu aqueux sans recourir à la microfilitration requise dans le cas de la Degussa P25. / This work was devoted to the elaboration by wet route (pillaring, solvothermal and colloidal) of TiO2 supported photocatalysts on three kinds of clay minerals (stevensite, beidellite and palygorskite) from Morocco, to their characterizations and finally to the evaluation of their photocatalytic activities towards the removal from aqueous media of anionic Orange G dye, widely used in textile industry. Stevensite and beidellite were magnesian trioctahedral and aluminiferous dioctahedral smectites respectively. Nevertheless, palygorskite was a fibrous Al-rich clay mineral with a predominant dioctahedral character. The photocatalyst materials elaborated by the pillaring of stevensite or beidellite did not reveal the formation of TiO2 interlayer pillars, but the observation of an amorphous matrix of Ti-rich phase within which were distributed some rare unaltered particles of phyllosilicates. Those based on stevensite elaborated according to solvothermal method also showed dissolved phyllosilicates particles, but within crystalline TiO2 anatase matrix. Nevertheless, the functionalized materials developed according to colloidal route exhibited successful immobilization of anatase nanoparticles (10 nm) onto as well as more or less exfoliated layers of stevensite or beidellite than on palygorskite fibers. Anatase remained remarkably stable up to 900 °C when attached to particles of clay minerals in comparison with that developed in their absence which underwent a complete transformation into rutile at around 650°C. This remarkable stability at high temperature of anatase supported on clay minerals particles was due to the hindrance of particles growth by sintering whose the sizes remained below the nucleus critical sizes (30 nm) required for its transition into less photoactive rutile. The photocatalysis tests revealed that the catalytic activity of different elaborated materials increased according to the synthesis route: pillaring process - solvothermal method - colloidal route and according to the nature of clay mineral: stevensite - beidellite - palygorskite. In addition, the supported photocatalysts based on beidellite or palygorskite prepared by colloidal route were found to be twice more active than the commercial TiO2 powder Degussa P25. Furthermore, their particles easily floculated so that they are readily removable from treated solutions without resorting to expensive microfiltration required upon the use of Degussa P25.

INTRODUÇÃO: O tratamento das doenças decorrentes das deficiências quantitativa ou qualitativa do surfactante pulmonar consiste na reposição exógena, porém, esta terapêutica é de alto custo devido, basicamente, à metodologia sofisticada de produção do surfactante e à necessidade de importação. Com o propósito de reduzir os custos deste tratamento, o Instituto Butantan, em São Paulo, Brasil, desenvolveu uma nova tecnologia de produção, que demanda menor custo, através da extração orgânica de macerado de pulmão de suínos acoplada à adsorção em um derivado de celulose (DEAE-celulose). MÉTODOS: Com o objetivo de testar a eficácia deste novo produto, 74 coelhos prematuros de 27 dias de gestação foram randomizados em três grupos de estudo, de acordo com o tipo de tratamento realizado: Grupo Controle (n = 28, sem tratamento), Grupo Butantan (n = 22, Surfactante Butantan 50 mg/kg) e Grupo Survanta (n = 24, Survanta® 50 mg/kg). Os animais foram submetidos à ventilação mecânica com freqüência respiratória de 60 ciclos/ minuto, pressão expiratória positiva final de zero, tempo inspiratório de 0,5 segundo e fração inspirada de oxigênio de 21%, durante 20 minutos. O volume-corrente foi ajustado manualmente em 8 ml/kg durante o período da ventilação e a pressão ventilatória (pressão inspiratória - pressão expiratória final positiva) atingida foi registrada através de um pletismógrafo a cada 5 minutos. A complacência dinâmica foi determinada pela relação entre o volume-corrente e a pressão ventilatória. Ao final da ventilação, os animais foram divididos em dois grupos, um para a realização da curva pressão-volume e o outro para o estudo histopatológico. A análise histopatológica foi realizada com a determinação do tamanho alveolar médio, através da estimativa do intercepto linear médio (Lm); e com o cálculo do índice de distorção (ID) que indica a heterogeneidade do parênquima pulmonar. RESULTADOS: O volume-corrente alvo de 8 ml/kg foi atingido nos três grupos de estudo. Quanto a pressão ventilatória, foi observado menores pressões nos animais dos grupos Survanta® e Butantan durante todo o período da ventilação em relação ao grupo Controle. Melhor complacência dinâmica foi observada, não havendo diferença significante entre os grupos Survanta® e Butantan. Em relação à curva pressão-volume, volumes pulmonares maiores foram observados nos grupos Butantan e Survanta® comparados aos do grupo Controle; houve, também, melhor estabilização dos volumes pulmonares na fase expiratória entre os animais dos grupos tratados em relação ao grupo Controle. A análise histopatológica mostrou maior quantidade de alvéolos normais e menor de alvéolos hiperdistendidos ou colapsados nos animais do grupo que recebeu o novo surfactante e o grupo Survanta. No grupo controle, além de apresentar mais alvéolos colapsados e hiperdistendidos, houve também maior ocorrência de áreas com edema alveolar e derrame de material hialino na luz alveolar em relação aos outros dois grupos. CONCLUSÕES: Baseado nos resultados acima, concluiu-se que a administração do novo surfactante, produzido a partir da extração orgânica acoplada à adsorção em derivado de celulose, uma tecnologia de menor custo desenvolvida no Brasil, leva a melhora significativa das propriedades mecânicas pulmonares e da histerese na curva pressão-volume, além de apresentar melhor aeração do parênquima pulmonar e de forma mais homogênea, em coelhos prematuros. Estes efeitos foram semelhantes aos produzidos com a administração de um surfactante disponível no mercado para o uso clínico rotineiro / INTRODUCTION: Pulmonary diseases related to quantitative or qualitative surfactant deficiency are well described, mainly in neonatology. The treatment with surfactant replacement is effective although costly, due to the complexity of surfactant production and imports costs. Aiming the reduction of the cost associated with this therapy, the Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil, developed a new technology based in organic extraction coupled with adsorption on a cellulose derivative, resulting in lower final cost. METHODS: In order to test the in vivo efficacy of this new product, 27 days gestation preterm rabbits were randomized after tracheostomy into 3 study groups, according to the type of treatment received: Control Group (n = 28, no treatment), Butantan Group (n = 22, Butantan surfactant, 50 mg/kg) or Survanta Group (n = 24, Survanta® 50 mg/kg). Mechanical ventilation was initiated with respiratory rate, 60 cycles/min; positive end expiratory pressure, zero and inspiratory time, 0.5 sec; FiO2, 21%. Inspiratory pressure and tidal volume was continuosly evaluated using a pletismograph, and set according to the necessary in order to ventilate with a preset target tidal volume of 8 ml/kg. Respiratory parameters were recorded each five min until the end of ventilation, after 20 min. Ventilatory pressure was defined as inspiratory pressure - positive end expiratory pressure (cmH2O); dynamic compliance (DC) was calculated as DC = {[Tidal volume (ml) / (Body weight (g)/1000)] / ventilatory pressure (cmH2O)}. After the end of ventilation period the animals were divided into two groups: the first for PV curve evaluation and the second for histopathological analysis. The histopathological analysis was performed with determination of mean alveolar size, using mean linear intercept (Lm) and the distortion index, to evaluate the heterogeneity of pulmonary parenchyma. Statistical analysis was by ANOVA ONE WAY, with Student-Newman-Keuls as post hoc test. Significance level was set at p = 0.05. RESULTS: The target tidal volume was achieved in all groups. We found lower ventilatory pressures, higher dynamic compliances and pulmonary volumes in both surfactant treated groups compared to the Control group, with no difference between them. Butantan surfactant and Survanta resulted in increased Lm and lower alveoli asymmetry, as evaluated by distortion index. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the new surfactant produced by Butantan Institute resulted in improvement of lung mechanics and histhopatological findings similar to the obtained with a clinicaly available surfactant, with no differences between them

INTRODUÇÃO: O tratamento das doenças decorrentes das deficiências quantitativa ou qualitativa do surfactante pulmonar consiste na reposição exógena, porém, esta terapêutica é de alto custo devido, basicamente, à metodologia sofisticada de produção do surfactante e à necessidade de importação. Com o propósito de reduzir os custos deste tratamento, o Instituto Butantan, em São Paulo, Brasil, desenvolveu uma nova tecnologia de produção, que demanda menor custo, através da extração orgânica de macerado de pulmão de suínos acoplada à adsorção em um derivado de celulose (DEAE-celulose). MÉTODOS: Com o objetivo de testar a eficácia deste novo produto, 74 coelhos prematuros de 27 dias de gestação foram randomizados em três grupos de estudo, de acordo com o tipo de tratamento realizado: Grupo Controle (n = 28, sem tratamento), Grupo Butantan (n = 22, Surfactante Butantan 50 mg/kg) e Grupo Survanta (n = 24, Survanta® 50 mg/kg). Os animais foram submetidos à ventilação mecânica com freqüência respiratória de 60 ciclos/ minuto, pressão expiratória positiva final de zero, tempo inspiratório de 0,5 segundo e fração inspirada de oxigênio de 21%, durante 20 minutos. O volume-corrente foi ajustado manualmente em 8 ml/kg durante o período da ventilação e a pressão ventilatória (pressão inspiratória - pressão expiratória final positiva) atingida foi registrada através de um pletismógrafo a cada 5 minutos. A complacência dinâmica foi determinada pela relação entre o volume-corrente e a pressão ventilatória. Ao final da ventilação, os animais foram divididos em dois grupos, um para a realização da curva pressão-volume e o outro para o estudo histopatológico. A análise histopatológica foi realizada com a determinação do tamanho alveolar médio, através da estimativa do intercepto linear médio (Lm); e com o cálculo do índice de distorção (ID) que indica a heterogeneidade do parênquima pulmonar. RESULTADOS: O volume-corrente alvo de 8 ml/kg foi atingido nos três grupos de estudo. Quanto a pressão ventilatória, foi observado menores pressões nos animais dos grupos Survanta® e Butantan durante todo o período da ventilação em relação ao grupo Controle. Melhor complacência dinâmica foi observada, não havendo diferença significante entre os grupos Survanta® e Butantan. Em relação à curva pressão-volume, volumes pulmonares maiores foram observados nos grupos Butantan e Survanta® comparados aos do grupo Controle; houve, também, melhor estabilização dos volumes pulmonares na fase expiratória entre os animais dos grupos tratados em relação ao grupo Controle. A análise histopatológica mostrou maior quantidade de alvéolos normais e menor de alvéolos hiperdistendidos ou colapsados nos animais do grupo que recebeu o novo surfactante e o grupo Survanta. No grupo controle, além de apresentar mais alvéolos colapsados e hiperdistendidos, houve também maior ocorrência de áreas com edema alveolar e derrame de material hialino na luz alveolar em relação aos outros dois grupos. CONCLUSÕES: Baseado nos resultados acima, concluiu-se que a administração do novo surfactante, produzido a partir da extração orgânica acoplada à adsorção em derivado de celulose, uma tecnologia de menor custo desenvolvida no Brasil, leva a melhora significativa das propriedades mecânicas pulmonares e da histerese na curva pressão-volume, além de apresentar melhor aeração do parênquima pulmonar e de forma mais homogênea, em coelhos prematuros. Estes efeitos foram semelhantes aos produzidos com a administração de um surfactante disponível no mercado para o uso clínico rotineiro / INTRODUCTION: Pulmonary diseases related to quantitative or qualitative surfactant deficiency are well described, mainly in neonatology. The treatment with surfactant replacement is effective although costly, due to the complexity of surfactant production and imports costs. Aiming the reduction of the cost associated with this therapy, the Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil, developed a new technology based in organic extraction coupled with adsorption on a cellulose derivative, resulting in lower final cost. METHODS: In order to test the in vivo efficacy of this new product, 27 days gestation preterm rabbits were randomized after tracheostomy into 3 study groups, according to the type of treatment received: Control Group (n = 28, no treatment), Butantan Group (n = 22, Butantan surfactant, 50 mg/kg) or Survanta Group (n = 24, Survanta® 50 mg/kg). Mechanical ventilation was initiated with respiratory rate, 60 cycles/min; positive end expiratory pressure, zero and inspiratory time, 0.5 sec; FiO2, 21%. Inspiratory pressure and tidal volume was continuosly evaluated using a pletismograph, and set according to the necessary in order to ventilate with a preset target tidal volume of 8 ml/kg. Respiratory parameters were recorded each five min until the end of ventilation, after 20 min. Ventilatory pressure was defined as inspiratory pressure - positive end expiratory pressure (cmH2O); dynamic compliance (DC) was calculated as DC = {[Tidal volume (ml) / (Body weight (g)/1000)] / ventilatory pressure (cmH2O)}. After the end of ventilation period the animals were divided into two groups: the first for PV curve evaluation and the second for histopathological analysis. The histopathological analysis was performed with determination of mean alveolar size, using mean linear intercept (Lm) and the distortion index, to evaluate the heterogeneity of pulmonary parenchyma. Statistical analysis was by ANOVA ONE WAY, with Student-Newman-Keuls as post hoc test. Significance level was set at p = 0.05. RESULTS: The target tidal volume was achieved in all groups. We found lower ventilatory pressures, higher dynamic compliances and pulmonary volumes in both surfactant treated groups compared to the Control group, with no difference between them. Butantan surfactant and Survanta resulted in increased Lm and lower alveoli asymmetry, as evaluated by distortion index. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the new surfactant produced by Butantan Institute resulted in improvement of lung mechanics and histhopatological findings similar to the obtained with a clinicaly available surfactant, with no differences between them

Chemical EOR processes such as polymer flooding and surfactant polymer flooding must be designed and implemented in an economically attractive manner to be perceived as viable oil recovery options. The primary expenses associated with these processes are chemical costs which are predominantly controlled by the crude oil properties of a reservoir. Crude oil viscosity dictates polymer concentration requirements for mobility control and can also negatively affect the rheological properties of a microemulsion when surfactant polymer flooding. High microemulsion viscosity can be reduced with the introduction of an alcohol co-solvent into the surfactant formulation, but this increases the cost of the formulation. Experimental research done as part of this study combined the process of hot water injection with ASP flooding as a solution to reduce both crude oil viscosity and microemulsion viscosity. The results of this investigation revealed that when action was taken to reduce microemulsion viscosity, residual oil recoveries were greater than 90%. Hot water flooding lowered required polymer concentrations by reducing oil viscosity and lowered microemulsion viscosity without co-solvent. Laboratory testing of viscous microemulsions in core floods proved to compromise surfactant performance and oil recovery by causing high surfactant retention, high pressure gradients that would be unsustainable in the field, high required polymer concentrations to maintain favorable mobility during chemical flooding, reduced sweep efficiency and stagnation of microemulsions due to high viscosity from flowing at low shear rates. Rough scale-up chemical cost estimations were performed using core flood performance data. Without reducing microemulsion viscosity, field chemical costs were as high as 26.15 dollars per incremental barrel of oil. The introduction of co-solvent reduced chemical costs to as low as 22.01 dollars per incremental barrel of oil. This reduction in cost is the combined result of increasing residual oil recovery and the added cost of an alcohol co-solvent. Heating the reservoir by hot water flooding resulted in combined chemical and heating costs of 13.94 dollars per incremental barrel of oil. The significant drop in cost when using hot water is due to increased residual oil recovery, reduction in polymer concentrations from reduced oil viscosity and reduction of microemulsion viscosity at a fraction of the cost of co-solvent. / text

Les membranes cellulaires naturelles sont des structures complexes et posent de nombreux problèmes lorsqu'elles sont étudiées dans leur forme native. Par conséquent, des systèmes modèles lipidiques plus simples sont souhaitables pour étudier les composants des membranes cellulaires et leur interaction avec les molécules biologiques. Immobiliser ces modèles lipidiques sur des surfaces solides métalliques, pour former des bicouches biomimétiques supportées (SLB pour Supported Lipid Bilayer en anglais), est encore plus avantageux grâce leur adaptabilité à de nombreuses techniques de caractérisation de surface, telles que la microscopie de force atomique (AFM), la spectroscopie de résonance des plasmons de surface (SPR), l’électrochimie et les spectroscopies vibrationnelles (IR, Raman). Former ces bicouches lipidiques supportées par fusion des vésicules a toujours été la technique la plus adaptée vue sa simplicité et son efficacité. Cependant, cette technique exige des conditions expérimentales critiques comme la nécessité de surfaces planes lisses et hydrophiles (mica, verre…), des vésicules à base de phospholipides zwitterioniques en phase fluide, une concentration élevée en lipides, et une longue durée d’incubation (>1h). Dans cette thèse, nous visons à développer une nouvelle méthode simple, rapide et polyvalente permettant de former une large gamme de bicouches biomimétiques supportées, de type zwitterionique et anionique, en phase gel et fluide sur un substrat d’or. Cette nouvelle approche consiste en l’utilisation des réactions d’appariement ionique générées par un système rédox confiné en surface pour induire l’assemblage de phospholipides et former la bicouche lipidique. Le premier objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier le comportement électrochimique d’une monocouche auto-assemblée de ferrocényldodécanethiolates (FcC12SAu) en présence de molécules amphiphiles avec des groupes anioniques de types carboxyle (sel d’acide gras) et phosphate (groupes qu’on trouve dans les phospholipides) et une simple chaîne hydrocarbonée. Dans le même contexte, nous viserons également l’utilisation des réactions d’appariement ionique pour induire l’assemblage des surfactants n-alkyl carboxylate et n-alkyl phosphate à l’interface SAM/électrolyte. Le second objectif de ce travail de thèse consiste en l’utilisation du système rédox confiné en surface pour déclencher par appariement ionique l’assemblage des phospholipides (molécules amphiphiles à double chaînes hydrocarbonées) pour former des bicouches biomimétiques supportées sur une surface d’or, à partir de vésicules unilamellaires, à température ambiante et en quelques minutes. La couverture de surface en ferrocènes et l’hydrophobicité/hydrophilicité de la surface seront altérées par la suite pour investiguer l’effet sur la formation des bicouches lipidiques supportées. / Natural cell membranes are complex structures and may present many problems when studied in their native form. It is therefore desirable to have simpler lipid bilayer systems to study the components of cell membranes and their interaction with biological molecules. Immobilizing these lipid membranes on metallic solid surfaces, to form Supported Lipid Bilayers (SLB), is more advantageous due to the integrity with a wide range of surface-sensitive characterization techniques, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM), surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy (SPR), electrochemistry and vibrational spectroscopies (IR, Raman). The preparation of SLBs by vesicle fusion has always been the most suitable technique due to its simplicity and efficiency, but it requires critical experimental conditions such as the need for smooth and hydrophilic flat surfaces (mica, glass...), vesicles based on zwitterionic phospholipids in fluid phase, high lipid concentration, and lengthy SLB preparation times (>1h). In this thesis, we aim to develop a new simple, fast, and versatile method to form a wide range of supported biomimetic bilayers using zwitterionic and anionic phospholipid vesicles in gel and fluid phase on a gold substrate. This new approach consists in the use of ionic pairing reactions generated by a surface-confined redox system to induce the assembly of phospholipids and form the lipid bilayer. The first part of this thesis focuses on studying the electrochemical behavior of a self-assembled monolayer of ferrocenyldodecanethiolates (FcC12SAu) in the presence of amphiphilic molecules containing a carboxyl (fatty acid salt) and phosphate anionic group and a single hydrocarbon chain. This part will also focus on the use of ion-pairing reactions to induce the assembly of n-alkyl carboxylate and n-alkyl phosphate surfactants at the SAM/electrolyte interface. The second and main objective of this thesis work was subsequently devoted to the use of the surface-confined redox system to trigger by ion-pairing the assembly of phospholipids (amphiphilic molecules with double hydrocarbon chains) to form biomimetic bilayers supported on a gold surface from unilamellar vesicles at room temperature and within minutes. The surface coverage of ferrocenes and the hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity of the surface will be altered later to investigate the effect on the formation of supported lipid bilayers.

Ce travail est consacré à la préparation de matériaux mésoporeux à partir de cristaux liquides formés avec des tensioactifs fluorés selon le mécanisme transcriptif LCT. Les paramètres de synthèse ont été optimisés pour la préparation de silices mésostructurées à partir de la phase hexagonale du système eau/C8F17C2H4(OCH2CH2)9OH. Les résultats montrent une corrélation entre le diamètre des pores des matériaux et les diamètres hydrophobes mesurés dans les cristaux liquides. L'incorporation de TiO2 dans une matrice silicatée selon la méthode de coprécipitation a été réalisée en utilisant soit des micelles (mécanisme d'auto-assemblage coopératif CTM), soit la phase hexagonale du système C8F17C2H4(OCH2CH2)9OH/eau (mécanisme transcriptif LCT). Dans les deux cas, l'incorporation de titane conduit à une perte de la structure et à une diminution de la surface spécifique. L'utilisation du mécanisme CTM favorise la formation de TiO2 anatase en surface du matériau, tandis que pour le mécanisme LCT, la substitution du silicium par le titane au coeur du matériau a été mise en évidence. Des films minces mésostructurés à base de TiO2 ont été réalisés à partir de la méthode EISA. Les analyses par diffraction des rayons X à incidence rasante couplées à des mesures de réflectivité ont permis de mettre en évidence la structure des films et de déterminer les épaisseurs des couches qui constituent les films. Enfin, une méthode originale de synthèse de matériaux mésoporeux organisés à base de TiO2 a été développée. La précipitation de TiO2 dans la mésophase hybride est déclenchée à l'aide d'un traitement par NH3 (g). La structure des matériaux est conservée après l'étape de calcination laquelle permet de cristalliser TiO2 en phase anatase. L'activité photocatalytique de ces matériaux a ensuite été testée sur la réaction de photodégradation du méthylorange / This work deals with the preparation of mesoporous materials from fluorinated liquid crystals via the LCT mechanism. Synthesis parameters have been optimized for the preparation of ordered mesoporous silica with the hexagonal H1 phase of water/C8F17C2H4(OCH2CH2)9OH system. Results show a correlation between pore diameters of materials and hydrophobic diameters measured in liquid crystals. According to the coprecipitation method, incorporation of TiO2 in a silica matrix, synthesized using micelles (via the cooperative templating mechanism CTM) or the hexagonal phase of C8F17C2H4(OCH2CH2)9OH/water system (via liquid crystal templating mechanism LCT). Both pathways lead to a loss of mesopore ordering and a decrease of the specific surface area when titania content increases. If materials are prepared via CTM mechanism TiO2 is present on the surface whereas TiO2 is in the bulk when LCT mechanism is used. Mesoporous thin films have been prepared via EISA method. Grazing incidence small angle X-Ray scattering and reflectivity analysis have been used to define the structure of films and the thickness of the different layers. Finally an original method has been developed for the preparation of ordered titania mesoporous materials. Precipitation of titania in the hybrid mesophase is activated by a NH3 treatment. The structure is preserved after calcination step which allow the formation of TiO2 anatase. Photocatalytic activity of these materials has been tested on the photodegradation of methylorange

Le besoin pour des biocapteurs à haute sensibilité mais simples à préparer et à utiliser est en constante augmentation, notamment dans le domaine biomédical. Les cristaux colloïdaux formés par des microsphères de polymère ont déjà prouvé leur fort potentiel en tant que biocapteurs grâce à l’association des propriétés des polymères et à la diffraction de la lumière visible de la structure périodique. Toutefois, une meilleure compréhension du comportement de ces structures est primordiale avant de pouvoir développer des capteurs efficaces et polyvalents. Ce travail propose d’étudier la formation et les propriétés des cristaux colloïdaux résultant de l’auto-assemblage de microsphères de polymère en milieu aqueux. Dans ce but, des particules avec différentes caractéristiques ont été synthétisées et caractérisées afin de corréler les propriétés des particules et le comportement de la structure cristalline. Dans un premier temps, des microsphères réticulées de polystyrène anioniques et cationiques ont été préparées par polymérisation en émulsion sans tensioactif. En variant la quantité de comonomère chargé, le chlorure de vinylbenzyltriméthylammonium ou le sulfonate styrène de sodium, des particules de différentes tailles, formes, polydispersités et charges surfaciques ont été obtenues. En effet, une augmentation de la quantité du comonomère ionique permet de stabiliser de façon électrostatique une plus grande surface et de diminuer ainsi la taille des particules. Cependant, au-dessus d’une certaine concentration, la polymérisation du comonomère en solution devient non négligeable, provoquant un élargissement de la distribution de taille. Quand la polydispersité est faible, ces microsphères chargées, même celles non parfaitement sphériques, peuvent s’auto-assembler et former des cristaux colloïdaux diffractant la lumière visible. Il semble que les répulsions électrostatiques créées par les charges surfaciques favorisent la formation de la structure périodique sur un grand domaine de concentrations et améliorent leur stabilité en présence de sel. Dans un deuxième temps, le besoin d’un constituant stimulable nous a orientés vers les structures cœur-écorce. Ces microsphères, synthétisées en deux étapes par polymérisation en émulsion sans tensioactif, sont formées d’un cœur de polystyrène et d’une écorce d’hydrogel. Différents hydrogels ont été utilisés afin d’obtenir des propriétés différentes : le poly(acide acrylique) pour sa sensibilité au pH, le poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) pour sa thermosensibilité, et, enfin, le copolymère poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acide acrylique) donnant une double sensibilité. Ces microsphères forment des cristaux colloïdaux diffractant la lumière visible à partir d’une certaine concentration critique et pour un large domaine de concentrations. D’après les changements observés dans les spectres de diffraction, les stimuli ont un impact sur la structure cristalline mais l’amplitude de cet effet varie avec la concentration. Ce comportement semble être le résultat des changements induits par la transition de phase volumique sur les interactions entre particules plutôt qu’une conséquence du changement de taille. Les interactions attractives de van der Waals et les répulsions stériques sont clairement affectées par la transition de phase volumique de l’écorce de poly(N-isopropylacrylamide). Dans le cas des microsphères sensibles au pH, les interactions électrostatiques sont aussi à considérer. L’effet de la concentration peut alors être mis en relation avec la portée de ces interactions. Finalement, dans l’objectif futur de développer des biocapteurs de glucose, les microsphères cœur-écorce ont été fonctionnalisées avec l’acide 3-aminophénylboronique afin de les rendre sensibles au glucose. Les effets de la fonctionnalisation et de la complexation avec le glucose sur les particules et leur empilement périodique ont été examinés. La structure cristalline est visiblement affectée par la présence de glucose, même si le mécanisme impliqué reste à élucider. / The need for biosensors with high sensibility but simple preparation and use has been increasing, especially in the biomedical field. Crystalline colloidal arrays (CCAs) formed by polymer microspheres have already demonstrated great potential for biosensing applications, combining the polymer properties to the visible light diffraction caused by their periodic structure. However, a better understanding of the behavior of such structures is essential in the objective to develop efficient and versatile biosensors. This work proposes to investigate the formation and properties of CCAs created by the self-assembly of polymer microspheres in aqueous medium. For that purpose, particles with different features have been synthesized and studied to highlight the correlation between the properties of the particles and the behavior of the CCAs. First, anionic and cationic cross-linked polystyrene microspheres have been prepared by surfactant-free emulsion polymerization. Different sizes, shapes, polydispersities and surface charge densities have been obtained by the use of various amounts of charged comonomers, either vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride or sodium styrenesulfonate. Indeed, an increasing amount of the ionic comonomer leads to a decreasing particle size because of the ability to electrostatically stabilize more surfaces. However, above a certain concentration, the polymerization of the comonomer in solution increases the polydispersity of the particle size. When allowed by a low polydispersity, the charged microspheres can self-assemble into CCAs with intense visible light diffraction, even for particles not quite spherical. It appears that the electrostatic repulsions created by the charges help in the formation of the periodic structure over a wide range of particle concentrations and improve their stability towards ionic strength. Secondly, the need for a sensitive component brought us to investigate core-shell structures. These microspheres, synthesized by a two-step surfactant-free emulsion polymerization, are made of a polystyrene core and a hydrogel shell. Different hydrogels have been used to achieve different properties: poly(acrylic acid) for pH-sensitivity, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) for thermosensitivity and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) for double sensitivity to both stimuli. Above a certain critical concentration, and over a wide range of concentrations, these microspheres also form CCAs with visible light diffraction. The resulting crystalline structures also display a response to the stimuli, visible through changes in the diffraction spectra, but the response appears to be dependent on the microsphere concentration. This behavior seems to be the result of a change in the interactions between particles rather than the outcome of the volume change of the particles. Attractive van der Waals and repulsive steric interactions are clearly affected by the temperature-induced volume phase transition of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) microspheres. In the case of pH-sensitive, electrostatic interactions are also to be considered. The effect of concentration can then related to the range of the interactions. Finally, in the objective to develop glucose sensors, the previous microspheres have been functionalized with 3-aminophenylboronic acid to make them responsive to glucose. The effects of the functionalization and complexation with glucose on the particles and their CCAs have been investigated. The crystalline structure is clearly affected by the presence of glucose, even though the mechanism involved remains to be clarified.

Les microcantileviers fonctionnalisés offrent une plateforme idéale pour la nano- et micro-mécanique et pour le développement de (bio-) capteurs tres sensible. Le principe d’opération consiste dans des évènements physicochimiques qui se passent du côté fonctionnalisé du microcantilevier induisant une différence de stress de surface entre les deux côtés du cantilevier qui cause une déflexion verticale du levier. Par contre, les facteurs et les phénomènes interfacials qui régissent la nature et l'intensité du stress de surface sont encore méconnus. Pour éclaircir ce phénomène, la première partie de cette thèse porte sur l'étude des réactions de microcantileviers qui sont recouverts d'or et fonctionnalisés par une monocouche auto-assemblée (MAA) électroactive. La formation d'une MAA de ferrocènylundécanethiol (FcC11SH) à la surface d'or d'un microcantilevier est le modèle utilisé pour mieux comprendre le stress de surface induit par l’électrochimie. Les résultats obtenus démontrent qu'une transformation rédox de la MAA de FcC11SH crée un stress de surface qui résulte dans une déflexion verticale du microcantilevier. Dépendamment de la flexibilité du microcantilevier, cette déflexion peut varier de quelques nanomètres à quelques micromètres. L’oxydation de cette MAA de FcC11SH dans un environnement d'ions perchlorate génère un changement de stress de surface compressive. Les résultats indiquent que la déflexion du microcantilevier est due à une tension latérale provenant d'une réorientation et d'une expansion moléculaire lors du transfért de charge et de pairage d’anions. Pour vérifier cette hypothèse, les mêmes expériences ont été répéteés avec des microcantileviers qui ont été couverts d'une MAA mixte, où les groupements électroactifs de ferrocène sont isolés par des alkylthiols inactifs. Lorsqu’un potentiel est appliqué, un courant est détecté mais le microcantilevier ne signale aucune déflexion. Ces résultats confirment que la déflexion du microcantilevier est due à une pression latérale provenant du ferrocènium qui se réorganise et qui crée une pression sur ses pairs avoisinants plutôt que du couplage d’anions. L’amplitude de la déflexion verticale du microcantilevier dépend de la structure moléculaire de la MAA et du le type d’anion utilisés lors de la réaction électrochimique. Dans la prochaine partie de la thèse, l’électrochimie et la spectroscopie de résonance de plasmon en surface ont été combinées pour arriver à une description de l’adsorption et de l’agrégation des n-alkyl sulfates à l’interface FcC11SAu/électrolyte. À toutes les concentrations de solution, les molécules d'agent tensio-actif sont empilées perpendiculairement à la surface d'électrode sous forme de monocouche condensé entrecroisé. Cependant, la densité du film spécifiquement adsorbé s'est avérée être affectée par l'état d'organisation des agents tensio-actifs en solution. À faible concentration, où les molécules d'agent tensio-actif sont présentes en tant que monomères solvatés, les monomères peuvent facilement s'adapter à l’évolution de la concentration en surface du ferrocènium lors du balayage du potential. Cependant, lorsque les molécules sont présentes en solution en tant que micelles une densité plus faible d'agent tensio-actif a été trouvée en raison de l'incapacité de répondre effectivement à la surface de ferrocenium générée dynamiquement. / Surface-functionalized microcantilevers provide an ideal platform for nano- and micro-mechanical actuation and highly sensitive sensing technologies. The basic principle of operation is that a chemical or physical event occurring at the functionalized surface of one side of the cantilever generates a surface stress difference (between the active functionalized and passive non-functionalized sides) that causes the cantilever to bend away from its resting position. However, the factors and phenomena contributing to both the nature and magnitude of the surface stress are not well understood. To this end, the first part of this thesis focused on investigating the potential-controlled actuation and surface stress properties of free-standing gold-coated microcantilevers functionalized with a redox-active self-assembled monolayer (SAM). A ferrocenylundecanethiolate (FcC11SAu) SAM on a gold-coated cantilever was used as a model system to investigate the surface stress generated by faradaic chemistry. The data obtained clearly demonstrates that the electrochemical transformation of a ferrocene moiety in a monomolecular organic film can generate a surface stress change of sufficient magnitude to deflect a microcantilever. In fact, depending on the flexibility of the microcantilever, the mechanical deflection resulting from the redox transformation of the surface-tethered ferrocene can range on the order of nanometers to micrometers. The oxidation of the FcC11SAu SAM in perchlorate electrolyte generates a compressive surface stress change. The microcantilever deflection is driven by the lateral tension resulting from molecular reorientation/volume expansion accompanying the charge-transfer and ion-pairing events. To verify this hypothesis, mixed SAM-modified microcantilevers, in which the electroactive ferrocenes are isolated from one another by an inert n-alkylthiolate matrix, were investigated. Under an applied potential, a Faradaic current was measured, but no microcantilever beam deflection was observed. This finding confirms that the cantilever responds to the lateral pressure exerted by an ensemble of re-orienting ferrocenium-bearing alkylthiolates upon each other rather than to individual anion pairing events. Changes in molecular structure and anion type can also be used to modulate the extent of micromechanical motion. In the next part of the dissertation, electrochemical measurements and surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy were combined to present a description of the adsorption and aggregation of n-alkyl sulfates at the FcC11SAu/electrolyte interface. At all bulk solution concentrations, the surfactant moieties packed perpendicular to the electrode surface in the form of an interdigitated condensed film. However, the density of the specifically adsorbed film was found to be affected by the organizational state of the surfactants in solution. At low concentrations, where the surfactant molecules are present as solvated monomers, the monomers can readily adapt to the changing ferrocenium concentration with the potential potential scan. However, when the molecules are present as micellar structures in solution, a lower surfactant packing density was found because of the inability to respond effectively to the dynamically generated surface ferroceniums. This research demonstrates the potential utility of charge-transfer interactions for organizing materials at solid interfaces and effecting micromechanical actuation using an electrifical stimulus.

De nouveaux glycopolymères amphiphiles en peigne de type dextrane-g-poly(méthacrylate de méthyle) ont été obtenus via une polymérisation radicalaire contrôlée par transfert d’atome (ATRP). Pour contrôler les paramètres macromoléculaires de ces glycopolymères potentiellement biocompatibles et en partie biodégradables, la stratégie de synthèse « grafting from » a été sélectionnée et appliquée selon deux voies de synthèse. La première voie comporte quatre étapes : acétylation partielle des fonctions hydroxyle du dextrane ; introduction des groupements amorceurs d’ATRP ; ATRP contrôlée du méthacrylate de méthyle dans le diméthylsulfoxyde ; hydrolyse des groupements acétate dans des conditions douces. La seconde voie de synthèse permet d’obtenir ces glycopolymères en seulement deux étapes : introduction directe des groupements amorceurs d’ATRP sur le dextrane ; ATRP contrôlée du méthacrylate de méthyle dans le diméthylsulfoxyde. Des études détaillées de chaque étape ont permis à la fois d’estimer la longueur de la chaîne de dextrane et d’assurer le contrôle de l’architecture des glycopolymères (nombre et longueur des greffons). Des études préliminaires par tensiométrie interfaciale ont permit d’évaluer le caractère tensioactif de ces glycopolymères / Synthesis of the new comb-like amphiphilic glycopolymer dextran-g-poly(methyl methacrylate) was obtained thanks to an Atom Transfert Radical Polymerization (ATRP). In order to control the macromolecular parameters of these biocompatible and partly biodegradable glycopolymers, the “grafting from” strategy was applied using two different multi-step pathways. The first one is composed of four steps: partial acetylation of dextran hydroxyl groups; introduction of initiator groups convenient for ATRP; ATRP of methyl methacrylate in dimethylsulfoxide; acetyl group deprotection under mild conditions. The second pathway allows us to obtain such glycopolymers in only two steps: direct introduction of the same initiator groups onto the dextran chain and subsequent ATRP of methyl methacrylate in dimethylsulfoxide. Throughout the synthesis, detailed studies of each step enabled us to estimate the length of the dextran backbone and to assure the control of copolymer architecture in terms of graft number and graft length. Preliminary interfacial tension measurements highlighted the surfactant properties of such glycopolymers

Iron platinum (FePt) has attracted growing interest because of its high Curie temperature, magneto-crystalline anisotropy and chemical stability. Nanoparticles (NPs) made of this alloy are promising candidates for a wide range of biomedical applications including magnetic separation, magnetic targeted drug delivery, hyperthermia for cancer therapy and also as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. This thesis presents the synthesis, functionalization and characterization of FePt NPs along with a toxicity study and an investigation into their application as MRI contrast agents. Regarding their synthesis, different approaches have been explored including the co-reduction of Fe and Pt precursors in an aqueous media, the thermal decomposition in a conventional high-boiling solvent such as benzyl ether, and in low-melting organic salts (ionic liquids). The data revealed an inhomogeneous composition distribution of Fe and Pt between particles obtained in aqueous media, due to the iron salts hydrolysis, and a mismatch in the co-reduction kinetic of the two metal precursors. While the iron content in the NPs could be increased by using more hydrolytically stable iron precursors or stronger reducing agents, there are remaining limiting parameters which prevent further Fe content increase in NPs. In contrast, by excluding the water from the reaction system and using a Fe²⁻ iron precursor, homogenous 1:1 Fe to Pt ratio NPs can be obtained through a modified thermal decomposition pathway in benzyl ether. Based on the study of synthesis in this conventional chemical, the potential of ionic liquids (ILs) to be used as novel solvents for FePt NPs synthesis was further explored. It was then demonstrated that ionic liquids (ILs) can not only be used as a solvent for synthesis of FePt NPs, but also can provide an exciting alternative pathway to direct synthesis fct-FePt NPs. In the context of the bioapplication of FePt NPs, a family of FePt NPs was specifically designed to enhance their MRI contrast agents properties. In contrast with previous reports, this thesis demonstrates that FePt NPs can be made non-toxic and provides the first data on their cellular uptake mechanisms. A six times increase in the FePt based T₂ contrast properties compared to clinical iron oxide NPs is reported. The relationship between the MRI contrast properties and the NPs architecture is explored and rationalised as the basis for the design of NPs as enhanced MRI contrast agents. Finally, the first observations of cellular and in vivo MR imaging with FePt NPs is also reported. This study opens the way for several applications of FePt NPs such as regenerative medicine and stem cell therapy, thus providing a bio-platform to develop novel diagnostic and therapeutic agents.