The thesis analyses syntactic complexity of monologic tasks of 10 B2 and 10 C1 speakers of English with Czech as their L1. The data derives from LINDSEI_CZ (Gráf 2017). The transcripts of the recordings were segmented into AS-units (Foster et al. 2000) and adapted for the purposes of the analysis. Syntactic complexity was calculated using following measures: mean length of AS-unit, mean length of clause, clauses / AS-unit. These were complemented by fine-grained indices of structural complexity, comprised of ratios of subordinate clause types and coordinate verb phrases per total number of clauses (Vercellotti & Packer 2016) and a weighted complexity scale designed by Vercellotti (2018). The results of the quantitative analysis showed no significant effect of proficiency on syntactic complexity of the speakers. In fact, all speakers irrespective of language proficiency level produced very similar complex structures as opposed to lower-proficiency structures. This indicates that more fine-grained indices should be incorporated into spoken complexity research. At the same time, scores of each measure varied considerably within groups, pointing at the importance of inter-speaker variability in this research. The thesis thus produced outcomes that are largely methodological, in that it has identified...

Human infants have been shown to have an innate capacity to acquire their mother tongue. In recent decades, the advent of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique has made it feasible to explore the neural basis underlying language acquisition and processing in children, even in newborn infants (for reviews, see Kuhl & Rivera-Gaxiola, 2008; Kuhl, 2010) . Spontaneous low-frequency (< 0.1 Hz) fluctuations (LFFs) in the resting brain have been shown to be physiologically meaningful in the seminal study (Biswal et al., 1995) . Compared to task-based fMRI, resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) has some unique advantages in neuroimaging research, especially in obtaining data from pediatric and clinical populations. Moreover, it enables us to characterize the functional organization of the brain in a systematic manner in the absence of explicit tasks. Among brain systems, the language network has been well investigated by analyzing LFFs in the resting brain. This thesis attempts to investigate the functional connectivity within the language network in typically developing preschool children and the covariation of this connectivity with children’s language development by using the rs-fMRI technique. The first study (see Chapter 2.1; Xiao et al., 2016a) revealed connectivity differences in language-related regions between 5-year-olds and adults, and demonstrated distinct correlation patterns between functional connections within the language network and sentence comprehension performance in children. The results showed a left fronto-temporal connection for processing syntactically more complex sentences, suggesting that this connection is already in place at age 5 when it is needed for complex sentence comprehension, even though the whole functional network is still immature. In the second study (see Chapter 2.2; Xiao et al., 2016b), sentence comprehension performance and rs-fMRI data were obtained from a cohort of children at age 5 and a one-year follow-up. This study examined the changes in functional connectivity in the developing brain and their relation to the development of language abilities. The findings showed that the development of intrinsic functional connectivity in preschool children over the course of one year is clearly observable and individual differences in this development are related to the advancement in sentence comprehension ability with age. In summary, the present thesis provides new insights into the relationship between intrinsic functional connectivity in the brain and language processing, as well as between the changes in intrinsic functional connectivity and concurrent language development in preschool children. Moreover, it allows for a better understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying language processing and the advancement of language abilities in the developing brain.

English is taught in Swedish schools as a foreign language. The students are at different levels, and most of them try to achieve a higher proficiency level. While the extent to which students are successful at learning a language depends on many different factors. Previous studies have shown that students who are open to taking risks in their production are at an advantage. The present study investigated 80 texts written by students in the seventh and the ninth grade. The main aim was to investigate to what extent errors and complexity levels can be explained in relation to risk taking. In more detail, the study examined differences between the grades in terms of degree of syntactic complexity and what kinds of aspect and tense errors were made. To be able to investigate the errors an approach called Error Analysis was used. The results showed that for both grades, substitution errors were the most common error and there was a significant difference between the grades (p&lt;0.001); however, the other errors showed no significant differences. Regarding the complexity levels, there was a highly significant difference (significance level p&lt;0.001) for the least complex sentences, but there were no significant differences between the grades for the highest and second highest levels of complexity. The results furthermore suggest that there is a correlation between risk taking and a higher likelihood of making errors, as a large proportion of the erroneous sentences written by students from the ninth grade were found in syntactically complex sentences. Most of the errors made by students in the seventh grade were found in less syntactically complex sentences however.

<p>The aim of the present study is to examine how the development of <i>syntactic complexity</i> and <i>accuracy</i> in spoken Spanish L2 is related to two parameters, <i>motivation</i> and <i>aptitude</i>, in which <i>individual differences</i> are often claimed to correlate with successful second language learning (Dörnyei and Skehan 2003). The study shows how an understanding of the relationship between progression in second language proficiency and motivation is gained through the study of longitudinal data and the assessment of motivation in discourse. The development of syntactic complexity and accuracy in oral performance has been chosen as main indicators of <i>proficiency level</i>. <i>Correlations</i> have been computed between proficiency levels, <i>development coefficients</i>, quantitative outcomes of aptitude tests and quantified assessment of motivation. The study is based on longitudinal data consisting of recorded interviews and conversations in Spanish in Swedish upper secondary school. </p><p>The results from the progression analysis show that the whole group develops syntactic complexity, and that individual learners concentrate on either syntactic complexity or accuracy in their development. </p><p>Discourse analytical methods have been applied to the in-depth interviews in order to identify motivational types expressed by the learner and the strength of each type. These have been represented in terms of values on a self-determination scale, the extreme points of which are '<i>intrinsic</i>' vs. '<i>extrinsic</i>' motivation. An aptitude test (<i>Lat03</i>, Meara 2005) has also been administered to the participants and analysed . </p><p>Correlations (Spearman) have been further calculated between the relevant parameters. The results indicate that self-determined, intrinsic motivation correlates with progression. Analytic aptitude, however, does not predict progression to the same extent as intrinsic motivation seems to do at this level. </p>

The aim of the present study is to examine how the development of syntactic complexity and accuracy in spoken Spanish L2 is related to two parameters, motivation and aptitude, in which individual differences are often claimed to correlate with successful second language learning (Dörnyei and Skehan 2003). The study shows how an understanding of the relationship between progression in second language proficiency and motivation is gained through the study of longitudinal data and the assessment of motivation in discourse. The development of syntactic complexity and accuracy in oral performance has been chosen as main indicators of proficiency level. Correlations have been computed between proficiency levels, development coefficients, quantitative outcomes of aptitude tests and quantified assessment of motivation. The study is based on longitudinal data consisting of recorded interviews and conversations in Spanish in Swedish upper secondary school. The results from the progression analysis show that the whole group develops syntactic complexity, and that individual learners concentrate on either syntactic complexity or accuracy in their development. Discourse analytical methods have been applied to the in-depth interviews in order to identify motivational types expressed by the learner and the strength of each type. These have been represented in terms of values on a self-determination scale, the extreme points of which are 'intrinsic' vs. 'extrinsic' motivation. An aptitude test (Lat03, Meara 2005) has also been administered to the participants and analysed . Correlations (Spearman) have been further calculated between the relevant parameters. The results indicate that self-determined, intrinsic motivation correlates with progression. Analytic aptitude, however, does not predict progression to the same extent as intrinsic motivation seems to do at this level.

Human infants have been shown to have an innate capacity to acquire their mother tongue. In recent decades, the advent of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique has made it feasible to explore the neural basis underlying language acquisition and processing in children, even in newborn infants (for reviews, see Kuhl & Rivera-Gaxiola, 2008; Kuhl, 2010) . Spontaneous low-frequency (< 0.1 Hz) fluctuations (LFFs) in the resting brain have been shown to be physiologically meaningful in the seminal study (Biswal et al., 1995) . Compared to task-based fMRI, resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) has some unique advantages in neuroimaging research, especially in obtaining data from pediatric and clinical populations. Moreover, it enables us to characterize the functional organization of the brain in a systematic manner in the absence of explicit tasks. Among brain systems, the language network has been well investigated by analyzing LFFs in the resting brain. This thesis attempts to investigate the functional connectivity within the language network in typically developing preschool children and the covariation of this connectivity with children’s language development by using the rs-fMRI technique. The first study (see Chapter 2.1; Xiao et al., 2016a) revealed connectivity differences in language-related regions between 5-year-olds and adults, and demonstrated distinct correlation patterns between functional connections within the language network and sentence comprehension performance in children. The results showed a left fronto-temporal connection for processing syntactically more complex sentences, suggesting that this connection is already in place at age 5 when it is needed for complex sentence comprehension, even though the whole functional network is still immature. In the second study (see Chapter 2.2; Xiao et al., 2016b), sentence comprehension performance and rs-fMRI data were obtained from a cohort of children at age 5 and a one-year follow-up. This study examined the changes in functional connectivity in the developing brain and their relation to the development of language abilities. The findings showed that the development of intrinsic functional connectivity in preschool children over the course of one year is clearly observable and individual differences in this development are related to the advancement in sentence comprehension ability with age. In summary, the present thesis provides new insights into the relationship between intrinsic functional connectivity in the brain and language processing, as well as between the changes in intrinsic functional connectivity and concurrent language development in preschool children. Moreover, it allows for a better understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying language processing and the advancement of language abilities in the developing brain.

This study measured the effect of mode of discourse and developmental factors on composition length, syntactic complexity, and sentence-production error rate in the writing of secondary school students. The study also included a descriptive analysis of syntactic and logical patterns found in the sentence production errors. The 297 students whose writing samples provided the data for this study were enrolled in grades 7, 9, and 11. The students were divided into low and high within-grade developmental groups. Each student wrote two compositions, one in the descriptive mode and one in the persuasive mode.

[pt] A presente dissertação é um estudo teórico-experimental sobre linguagem na esquizofrenia, com foco no uso de pronomes em textos escritos por nativos do inglês, disponíveis na plataforma Reddit, com análise adicional da complexidade sintática no nível sentencial. A esquizofrenia é um distúrbio mental que se apresenta como uma heterogeneidade de disfunções neuropsicológicas, sendo uma de suas principais características disfunções linguísticas, em especial no uso e compreensão de expressões nominais e na redução da complexidade sintática. Foram coletados, analisados e comparados um total de 78 textos (39 de usuários com autodeclaração de esquizofrenia e 39 de controles pareados). Os textos coletados foram anotados sintaticamente e tratados estatisticamente considerando fatores relativos à complexidade sintática no nível sentencial e pronominal. Comparações intergrupais revelaram diferenças significativas no domínio sentencial e pronominal, com o grupo esquizofrenia apresentando menor volume de truncamento sentencial não-anômalo e maior volume de anomalias no emprego de pronomes plenos de terceira pessoa com leitura referencial. Estes resultados estão de acordo com as conclusões de estudos anteriores. Partindo do entendimento de que a Gramática é um mecanismo computacional cognitivo, as observações obtidas indicam que a esquizofrenia leva a uma redução na complexidade sintática de processos gramaticais responsáveis pela construção do significado. / [en] The present dissertation is a theoretical-experimental study on language in schizophrenia, focusing on the usage of pronouns in written texts produced by native speakers of English and published on Reddit, considering in addition syntactic complexity at the sentential level. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a set of heterogeneous dysfunctions, with language-malfunctioning being one of its main characteristics. In particular, misuse and misinterpretation of nominal expressions and syntactic-complexity reduction are linguistic hallmarks of schizophrenia. 78 texts (39 from Reddit users with self-declaration of schizophrenia and 39 from paired controls) were automatically collected, manually tagged and statistically compared. The tagging process was based on syntactic complexity at the sentential and nominal level. Between-group statistical comparisons showed significant differences, with the schizophrenic group exhibiting less non-anomalous sentential truncations (ellipsis) and more anomalous 3Person referential pronouns. This is in accordance with previous independent studies. Assuming human Grammar to be a computational apparatus of the cognitive system, we interpret the obtained results as suggesting that schizophrenia leads to reductions on meaning-building derivational grammatical processes.

This dissertation deals with the developing and development of EFL learners' communicative competence in writing in a blended learning course. The dissertation addresses issues related to the conceptualization of developing communicative competence and measuring learners' progress as well as using ICT in foreign language teaching. The underlying research question was whether learners' communicative competence changed after using a series of online discussion tasks, and if so, in what manner. The empirical research was conducted as a case study in which 18 learners in an EFL course at the CEFR A2 level participated in three discussion tasks conducted online, using asynchronous discussion forum. The discussions were built on social constructivist learning theories. Methods of data collection and analysis included pre- and post-tests, learner corpus compiled from the texts written by the students in two online discussions and its analysis, and a questionnaire survey. The results showed that learners' overall level of communicative competence in writing improved. Specifically, the syntactic complexity of learners' language produced at the beginning and at the end of the course increased and learners' perceived fluency in writing improved. These findings support the claim that learners' active participation in...

Un nombre réduit, mais croissant de recherches étudie le développement de la complexité syntaxique pour l’anglais et le français européen, mais à notre connaissance aucune ne s’est intéressée au français québécois. Ce projet a donc pour ambition d’analyser la production de constructions complexes chez des enfants franco-québécois âgés de 3 à 6 ans, à partir d’un corpus composé de 30 échantillons de langage spontané répartis en trois groupes d’âge de 3-4 ans, 4-5 ans et 5-6 ans. Les échantillons ont été recueillis pendant que chaque enfant s’amusait avec des jouets standards. Des enregistrements audio-visuels ont été effectués pendant l’activité et ensuite transcrits sous forme de corpus écrits. Enfin, le logiciel SALT a été utilisé pour coder les transcriptions. La présente étude se veut développementale, dans le sens qu’elle cherche à généraliser le processus de développement des complexités syntaxique en fonction de l’âge. Les constructions complexes considérées s’appuient sur la liste revisitée des introducteurs de complexité de Lentin (1998). À des fins d’analyse, elles ont été réparties en quatre catégories syntaxiques : les complétives, les coordonnées, les circonstancielles, et les relatives. Une analyse descriptive des constructions complexes basée sur des pourcentages a d’abord été effectuée suivie d’analyses statistiques pour vérifier la significativité des évolutions observées. Les principales conclusions de cette étude se résument comme suit. La proportion de constructions complexes est invariante entre 3 et 6 ans, laissant croire que le développement de la complexité syntaxique s’effectue au-delà de l’âge de 6 ans. Néanmoins, comme pour l’anglais, les complétives sont les constructions les plus fréquentes dans le langage de l’enfant et ce, pour chaque groupe d’âge. Viennent ensuite les coordonnées, les circonstancielles et enfin les relatives. L’ordre de développement suit ainsi l’ordre d’émergence des constructions complexes. À l’intérieur des quatre catégories syntaxiques, certains sous-types de constructions apparaissent plus fréquemment que d’autres. Dans les complétives, ce sont les infinitives prépositionnelles et les complétives introduites par la conjonction « que ». Dans les circonstancielles, ce sont les propositions introduites par « parce que » qui sont les plus utilisés, dans les coordonnées, ce sont les juxtapositions de propositions et enfin dans les relatives, les relatives sujet en « qui ». Une analyse plus détaillée du développement des sous-types de constructions complexes révèle une augmentation significative des circonstancielles exprimant la conséquence à partir de 4 ans et du discours indirect à partir de 5 ans. Toutefois, une diminution significative de l’interrogative indirecte a été relevée à partir de 5 ans. Des différences individuelles substantielles ont été observées entre les enfants d’un même groupe d’âge, en particulier dans le groupe de 4-5 ans. Les résultats obtenus mériteraient d’être vérifiés sur un corpus plus large et plus homogène afin de dégager des généralisations sur le processus de développement de la complexité syntaxique. Autre que l’âge, d’autres facteurs, tel que les facteurs cognitifs (comme la capacité de l’enfant à traiter l’information, la mémoire de travail) et les facteurs environnementaux (comme le type de discours, le langage adressé à l’enfant) seraient à considérer dans des travaux futurs. / A small but growing of research studies the development of syntactic complexity for English and European French, but to our knowledge none has focused on Quebec French. This project aims to analyze the production of complex constructions in Franco-Quebecer children aged 3 to 6, from a corpus composed of 30 samples of spontaneous language divided into three age groups of 3-4 years, 4-5 years and 5-6 years. The samples were collected while each child was playing with standard toys. Audio-visual recordings were made during the activity and then transcribed into a written corpus. Finally, SALT software was used to code the transcripts. The present study is developmental, in the sense that it seeks to generalize the process of production of syntactic complexities according to age. The complex constructions considered are based on Lentin's revisited list of complexity introducer, and for analysis purposes, they have been divided into four syntactic categories: complements, coordinates, circumstantials, and relatives. A descriptive analysis of the complex constructions based on percentages was first carried out, followed by statistical analyzes to test the significance of the changes observed. The main conclusions of this work can be summarized as follows. The proportion of complex constructions is invariant between 3 and 6 years, suggesting the development of syntactic complexity takes place beyond the age of 6 years. Nevertheless, as for English, complements are the most frequent constructions in child language, and this for each age group. This is followed respectively by coordinates, circumstantials and relatives. The order of development thus follows the order of emergence of complex constructions. Within these four syntactic categories, certain subtypes of constructions appear more frequently than others. In the category of complements, these are prepositional infinitives and the conjunction “que”. In circumstantials, "because" structures are the most used, and in coordinates, it is juxtapositions, and finally in relatives, the relative subject "qui” (who/which). A more detailed analysis of the development of complex construction subtypes reveals a significant increase in circumstantials expressing consequence from age 4, and indirect speech from age 5. However, a significant decrease in indirect questions was noted from the age of 5 years. Substantial individual differences were observed between children within the same age group, particularly in the 4-5 year one. Results obtained should be verified on a larger and more homogeneous corpus in order to draw generalizations on the process of syntactic complexity development. Other than age, other factors, such as cognitive factors (such as the child's ability to process information and working memory) and environmental factors (such as type of speech, language addressed to the child) should be considered in future work.