<p>Preferential processing favouring threatening information has received increased attention because cognitive formulations have placed increased emphasis on its role as a key cognitive factor underlying vulnerability to and maintenance of anxiety disorders. The present dissertation comprises four empirical studies within the area of preferential processing. Two different outcome measures were used to index preferential processing of threat-related information: Skin conductance responses (SCRs) were used in Studies I, II, and III. The emotional Stroop task was used in Study IV. The main focus has been on preferential processing of threat-related information that occurs outside awareness, thus <i>preferential preattentive processing</i>. Study I investigated the role of traumatic combat experience with regard to preferential processing among UN soldiers following a presentation of threat-related pictures. Results indicated that soldiers with combat experience consistently reacted with lower SCRs compared to soldiers without combat experience. One issue addressed in the individual studies was the association between preferential preattentive processing and trait anxiety. Studies II, III, and IV showed that elevated levels of trait anxiety promote preferential preattentive processing of negatively valenced information, whereas elevated levels of social desirability generally prevent preferential preattentive processing of negatively valenced information. Study II highlighted the importance of including the social desirability factor when studying effects of trait anxiety on preferential processing. In addition, Studies III and IV explored the relationship between preferential processing and emotional vulnerability. The main findings support the notion of preferential preattentive processing of threat representing an underlying predisposition to heightened emotional vulnerability in response to stressful events.</p>

Preferential processing favouring threatening information has received increased attention because cognitive formulations have placed increased emphasis on its role as a key cognitive factor underlying vulnerability to and maintenance of anxiety disorders. The present dissertation comprises four empirical studies within the area of preferential processing. Two different outcome measures were used to index preferential processing of threat-related information: Skin conductance responses (SCRs) were used in Studies I, II, and III. The emotional Stroop task was used in Study IV. The main focus has been on preferential processing of threat-related information that occurs outside awareness, thus preferential preattentive processing. Study I investigated the role of traumatic combat experience with regard to preferential processing among UN soldiers following a presentation of threat-related pictures. Results indicated that soldiers with combat experience consistently reacted with lower SCRs compared to soldiers without combat experience. One issue addressed in the individual studies was the association between preferential preattentive processing and trait anxiety. Studies II, III, and IV showed that elevated levels of trait anxiety promote preferential preattentive processing of negatively valenced information, whereas elevated levels of social desirability generally prevent preferential preattentive processing of negatively valenced information. Study II highlighted the importance of including the social desirability factor when studying effects of trait anxiety on preferential processing. In addition, Studies III and IV explored the relationship between preferential processing and emotional vulnerability. The main findings support the notion of preferential preattentive processing of threat representing an underlying predisposition to heightened emotional vulnerability in response to stressful events.

Scores from high-stakes tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) are commonly used as criteria for college admission decisions. So, it is of implied importance to identify factors that contribute to susceptibility to failure on these tests. One potential factor addressed in the current study was whether emotional cognitive load differentially impacts those with low working memory capacity or trait anxiety. Individual differences in subjective arousal were also tested as a mechanism contributing to this effect. In Experiment 1, a reading comprehension task revealed that type of cognitive load affected accuracy. In Experiment 2, state anxiety was induced using methods from previous research. The results revealed that, again, only type of cognitive load affected comprehension accuracy. Together, results suggest that arousal induced via disturbing words negatively influence reading performance regardless of superior working memory capacity. These findings are not based on cognitive load in general, but the semantic value of the words processed, in particular, that led to comprehension difficulty. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications.

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The effectiveness of a treatment for communication apprehension (CA) was examined in this study. Trait and state anxiety were examined by using community college students enrolled in four sections of a required basic speech communication course. The sample size consisted of 81 students, ranging in ages 17-82. Each student was asked to complete a trait anxiety measure (Personal Report of Communication Apprehension-24) during the second class meeting (pre-test) and again on the last day of class (post-test). For the state anxiety measure, students were asked to complete the Speaker Anxiety (SA) Scale immediately after delivering an informative speech at the end of the semester. Two classes served as the treatment group, receiving a 15-minute combination anxiety reduction technique and two classes served as the control group, receiving no treatment. A significant interaction was found in physiological activation, an important direct manifestation of state anxiety commonly experienced as irregular heart beat, dry mouth, sweaty palms, and feelings of exhaustion. The findings showed that the students in the control group who spoke in the second week had higher anxieties than did the other students. A dividend of this investigation was the result that supported frequent anecdotal reports from past speech students; namely, that at the conclusion of the basic speech course, students in this study reported a reduction in trait anxiety. Of the other comparisons made, race and maternal encouragement were shown as major influences for the trait of communication apprehension. Future research should use larger samples of community college students and focus on state anxiety with trait anxiety as a monitor for stability. Treatments might also be expanded to weekly sessions during a major portion of one semester. / Ph. D.

[pt] O Inventário de Ansiedade Traço-Estado (IDATE) apresenta duas escalas cujo propósito é o de quantificar a ansiedade enquanto estado (IDATE-E) e a ansiedade enquanto traço (IDATE-T). O estado de ansiedade consiste numa condição cognitivoafetiva transitória enquanto que o traço de ansiedade representa uma característica mais estável da personalidade. Vários estudos indicam que estrutura latente da escala IDATET apresenta dois fatores. Diferentes interpretações destes dois fatores têm sido levantadas. Uma delas aponta para um fator composto por itens com conteúdo semântico que expressam a presença de ansiedade, tensão ou preocupação enquanto que o outro fator parece estar relacionado com itens cujo conteúdo semântico expressa a ausência de ansiedade, tais como tranqüilidade, estabilidade e satisfação. Entretanto, outros estudos sugerem que um destes fatores estaria mais diretamente relacionado à depressão. Frente a esta discussão, o propósito do presente estudo foi o de reavaliar a estrutura fatorial desta escala a partir de três amostras brasileiras com características distintas: a) estudantes de duas Universidades da cidade do Rio de Janeiro; b) estudantes do último ano do ensino médio da cidade de Brasília; c) militares em processo de avaliação. Os resultados indicaram a existência de estruturas fatoriais distintas do IDATE-T em função da amostra estudada. Amostras formadas por universitários e alunos do ensino médio apresentaram uma estrutura fatorial favorável à interpretação de um componente de ansiedade e outro de depressão. Por outro lado, a amostra formada por militares em processo de avaliação favoreceu uma interpretação mais especifica dos IDATE-T, onde os dois fatores parecem estar associados à presença ou à ausência de ansiedade. Aspectos teóricos relacionados com a capacidade que instrumentos têm em distinguir constructos relacionados com ansiedade e depressão são discutidos. / [en] The State - Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is composed of two scales which intend to measures state (STAI-S) and trait (STAI-T) anxiety components. State anxiety refers to a transitory emotional state characterized by subjective feelings of tension that may vary in intensity over time whereas trait anxiety represents a relatively stable disposition to respond to stress with anxiety and a tendency to perceive a wider range of situations as threatening. Several studies indicate that STAI-T latent structure presents two factors. Different interpretations have been raised to explain the nature of these factors. One of them proposed that that one factor is composed by items which express the presence of anxiety, such as tension and worry whereas the other factor seems to be related with items which express the absence of anxiety, such as rest, stability and satisfaction. However, other studies pointed out that one of these factors might be related to humor, more specifically depression. Therefore, the present study further investigates the factor structure of the STAI-T in three different Brazilian samples with distinct characteristics: a) students from two different Universities from Rio de Janeiro; b) high school students from Brasilia and c) marine subjects during a military draft. Results indicated that STAI-T factor structure depended on the sample investigated. University and high school students presented a factorial structure convergent with the anxiety and depression interpretation. On the other hand, the military sample presented a factorial structure based on the anxiety present anxiety absence interpretation. Theoretical aspects related to the ability of instruments to discriminate anxiety and depression are discussed.

[pt] O objetivo desta tese é apresentar e discutir os indícios de ressignificação da ansiedade na aprendizagem/uso de línguas estrangeiras ao longo do percurso reflexivo desenvolvido durante doze sessões exploratórias realizadas entre os meses de abril e setembro de 2010, das quais participamos Lea, Mila e eu. Durante os encontros, buscamos a (co)construção de entendimentos acerca dos porquês envolvidos na ansiedade sentida pelas participantes em situações envolvendo línguas estrangeiras. Conhecemos as crenças atuais das aprendizes para relacioná-las aos construtos da ansiedade. Tendo como base filosófica a Prática Exploratória (ALLWRIGHT, 1991, 2009), a arquitetura teórica da pesquisa ilustra seu caráter multifacetado e baseia-se nos estudos acerca da ansiedade, apresentando suas bases neurais (DAMASIO, 2004; LEDOUX, 2004; BISHOP, 2007) e seu viés social, relacionado à aprendizagem e uso das línguas estrangeiras (BROWN, 1973; GUIORA, 1983; HORWITZ et al. 1986; MACINTYRE, 1999; YOUNG, 1999; GREGERSEN, 2003, 2005; HORWITZ, 2008, MARK, 2011, dentre outros ); nos estudos sobre as emoções (LUPTON, 1994; DAMASIO, 2004), crenças (BARCELOS, 1995, 2000, 2003, 2007, 2010); construções identitárias (BUCHOLTZ e HALL, 2005).O Sistema de Avaliatividade (MARTIN 2001, 2006; MARTIN e WHITE, 2005) foi utilizado como instrumento de análise das avaliações que emergiram durante o processo reflexivo. Fragmentos de doze sessões exploratórias, assim como as mensagens escritas pela participante focal, Mila, foram selecionados como instanciações de reflexões sobre vivências de ansiedade na aprendizagem e uso das línguas estrangeiras. A análise microdiscursiva dos fragmentos foi conduzida de modo a focar no léxico avaliativo referente aos subsistemas AFETO, APRECIAÇÃO e JULGAMENTO, permeados pela GRADAÇÃO e localizados em um continuum de polaridades positiva e negativa. A configuração discursiva das sessões exploratórias ensejou o surgimento e discussões de nossas crenças, momentos de (re)construção identitária, dentre outras questões, na medida em que buscávamos fazer sentido de nossas práticas. O movimento de refletir sobre essas crenças e questioná-las contribuiu para o desenvolvimento de entendimentos e ressignificação da ansiedade sentida pela participante focal. / [en] The objective of this thesis is to present and discuss the reframing of foreign language anxiety which was observed to happen during a reflective journey developed throughout twelve exploratory sessions that were held between April and September in 2010. During the meetings, in which Lea, Mila and I participated, we sought to (re)construct our understandings of the puzzles that involved the participants’ anxiety in situations of learning and using the foreign languages. We became aware of the participants’ current beliefs in order to relate them to the anxiety construct. Taking Exploratory Practice (ALLWRIGHT, 1991, 2009) as the philosophical basis, the theoretical architecture of the research illustrates its multifaceted feature, as it is based on the studies regarding anxiety, presenting its neural bases (DAMASIO, 2004; LEDOUX, 2004; BISHOP, 2007), as well as its social bias related to foreign language learning and use (BROWN, 1973; KLEINMANN, 1977; GUIORA, 1983; HORWITZ et al. 1986; EHRMAN, 1996; MACINTYRE, 1999; YOUNG, 1999; GREGERSEN, 2003, 2005; KONDO e YING-LING, 2004; MILLS ET AL. 2006; HORWITZ, 2008, MARK, 2011) The study is also based on the studies of emotions (LUPTON, 1994; DAMASIO, 2004), beliefs (BARCELOS, 1995, 2000, 2003, 2007, 2010), of identity construction (BUCHOLTZ e HALL, 2005) referring to foreign language learning and use, and of Appraisal Theory (MARTIN 2001, 2006; MARTIN e WHITE, 2005) as the analytical tool for the evaluations which have emerged during the reflective process. Fragments from the twelve exploratory sessions, as well as messages written by the focal participant, Mila, have been selected as reflective instances of perceived anxiety experienced in relation to foreign language learning and use. The micro-discursive analysis of the fragments have focused on the evaluative lexicon that relates to the subsystems of AFFECT, APPRECIATION, and JUDGEMENT, permeated by GRADUATION, all located on a continuum of positive and negative polarities. The discursive configuration of the exploratory sessions has emerged from the discussions of our beliefs, moments of identity (re)construction, among other issues, while we sought to make sense of our practices. The movement of reflecting and questioning these beliefs has contributed to the development of understandings and reframing the anxiety as perceived by the focal participant.

The adaptive-maladaptive debate in perfectionism research often centers on the issue of whether perfectionism affords the individual an advantage in academic performance. This study is an extension of a previous study by the authors that found maladaptive forms of perfectionism were positively associated with academic procrastination. Conversely, adaptive forms of perfectionism were negatively associated with academic procrastination. Additionally, although trait anxiety was positively associated with academic procrastination in general, this relationship was reversed for those scoring high in adaptive perfectionism but not maladaptive perfectionism. The purpose of the current study is to examine whether the relationships between perfectionism and procrastination is indirect with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (respective to adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism) serving as mediators of this relationship. Additionally we will examine whether the relationship between anxiety and procrastination is moderated by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.