利用VoIP進行網路會談(VoIP Conference)在現今的社會已有越來越流行的趨勢，尤其是遠距離語音會議的應用方面，不但能節省費用，還能同時允許多人上線會談，但隨著上線人數的增加，網路的頻寬需求與連線數量相對倍增，通話延遲時間也因頻道擁塞而難以控制，此時會議的品質(QoS)往往大打折扣，網路的負擔也會大幅增加。現行的主要解決方案為選擇網路會議中處理能力較強的使用者設備，將來自個別說話者的聲音經過混音疊加後再轉送給其他使用者，再利用不同架構的multicasting tree廣播語音封包至所有成員，藉此減少網路頻寬與連線數量的負擔，達到增加同時說話人數的目的。但這些作法在使用者所在位置過於分散、遙遠時，仍然會造成許多節點無法達到所需的通話品質。 本研究針對在大型網路語音會談中，與會人數過多造成通話品質不佳之問題，提出了解決方法，我們假設會議中大部份時間僅有一個說話者，首先為每位使用者加上靜音消除機制，只有發話者的封包直接送給其他所有與會人員，如此不但降低網路負擔，更可以刪除混音的需求，大幅降低傳輸時間，此外並以分群組（Cluster）的方式將位於同一地區的使用者分為同一群組，群組內以Full Mesh機制相連，如此便能建立一複雜度較小的MLDST (Minimum Loss Diameter Spanning Tree) 樹狀結構的multicasting tree用以廣播語音封包至所有成員，可以進一步控制傳輸時間及封包遺失率。我們根據使用者之間彼此的連線速度與實際距離來分群組，從群組中選出連線能力較佳的節點作為群組轉送點(Cluster Head)，透過此轉送點收到聲音後做群組內的發送，並藉由一個multicasting tree將封包在嚴格控制延遲時間及封包遺失率之下，將語音封包廣播至其他所有Cluster Head，以確保VoIP網路會議之品質。 我們在PlanetLab這種實際網路的實驗平台上進行實驗，評估本方法的效能，實驗結果顯示我們的方法可以在與會人數達到20人時，仍能有效控制延遲時間在350ms左右，若利用Google雲端運算系統的協助，平均延遲時間將可減少50ms至70ms。由於PlanetLab上的電腦性能普遍不佳，我們預期本技術應用於實際網路時，可以增加與會人數。

隨著網路技術的發展，目前網路電話(VoIP)已有逐漸取代傳統電話的趨勢。尤其能夠允許多人同時在線上進行會談是其最大的優勢之一。但在多人參與網路會談時，因為聲音在空間中傳遞或反射等因素，使得由喇叭發出的聲音再次被麥克風收回，造成回音的產生。會談中只要有一位使用者的裝置發生回音時，回音訊號就會在與會者之間擴散，使得所有使用者均會受到影響，進而嚴重影響網路通話的進行。此狀況在參與會談人數越多時，發生機率越高，且對通話品質影響越嚴重。 傳統電話在一對一通話時，通常使用遠端回音消除機制(Near End Echo Canceller)，由接收端在接收聲音後先暫存在記憶體中再播放，再將麥克風擷取的聲音與事先暫存的訊號反向後混合，以抵銷回音。網路會談的環境下，由於沒有標準的聽筒設備，使得回音發生的時間難以預估。且多人參與的網路會談中，由於收聽者所聽到的聲音可能混合多個使用者說話的聲音與回音，使得回音訊號難以偵測。另外，由於網路傳輸的特性，回音訊號到達的時間與順序都難以預估，這使得回音消除機制在多人網路回談中經常失效。 本研究提出藉由語音動態偵測(Voice Activity Detection-VAD)的方式分辨回音訊號，藉由本研究所提出的語音能量VAD判定機制，能夠有效區別正常語音與回音的差異，即可有效的消除回音，同時發揮靜音抑制（Slience Suppression）的效果，阻擋不含語音內容的封包，降低網路頻寬耗用。本研究以自行開發的VoIP軟體進行實地測試實驗，實驗中顯示，我們的方法能消除85%以上的回音。 / With the prosperous development of Internet technology, traditional phone service is being replaced gradually byVoice-over-IP (VoIP) technology. One of the critical problem that is yet to be improved is the echo problem. Due to the difference in working environment, conventional echo cancellation technology may not work well on VoIP system. The echo problem is becoming more critical as the number of participants in a talk session increases. As long as one user fails to depress echos, every other participant in the conference will be infected. The more participant, the higher probability of echo infection. We propose an energy based Voice Activity Detection (VAD) mechnism that effectively differentiate echo from speech signal. Our VAD algrouthm records a user’s speech volume, and based on this information to determine whether the frame is echo or not. By applying this mechnism to network conference, we can filter out echo frames and suppress slience at same time to save bandwidth consumption. We experimented on a self-developed VoIP software platform, the experiment result shows that our method can eliminate more than 85% of the echo.

語音表義教學雖已被學者提倡使用在字彙學習之領域多年，然而其在課室英語字彙教學的實際成效仍未獲證實。本研究先採用量化研究方法以探究語音表義教學對於國中生英語單字記憶之成效，再採用質性研究方法探討受試者對語音表義教學法之看法。 研究對象為台灣北部一所公立國中九年級兩個班的七十二位學生。此均質的兩個班級被隨機指定為實驗組與控制組，實驗組施予語音表義教學法學習八十個標的單字，而控制組則施予傳統翻譯式教學法學習相同的單字。接受歷時十六週的字彙教學後，以兩組學生在認字測驗上的成績以及實驗組學生個別訪談之結果作為資料分析來源。本研究主要發現如下：(1)接受語音表義教學的實驗組學生在認字測驗的表現上顯著優於接受傳統翻譯法的控制組學生。(2)實驗組中，高分群組與低分群組在接受語音表義教學後，在認字測驗的表現上皆呈現出顯著性進步，顯示出語音表義教學對不同程度的學生皆有成效。(3)受試者對語音表義教學持正面態度，且認為語音表義教學特別是在認字方面有助於英語字彙之記憶。研究最後進一步對語音表義教學在實際教學上之應用提供建議，作為教育學者們參考。 / Although the instruction of sound symbolism has been advocated for word learning for years, it is not clear whether it is empirically effective in classroom vocabulary teaching. This study first adopted a quantitative research method to investigate the effectiveness of the instruction of sound symbolism on junior high school students’ English vocabulary memorization, and then a qualitative research method to explore the participants’ perspectives on the instruction of sound symbolism. Participants of the study were two classes of 72 ninth-grade students in a public junior high school in northern Taiwan. With homogeneity in terms of English language proficiency, the two classes were randomly assigned as the experimental and control group. The former was instructed 80 target words by the instruction of sound symbolism, while the latter was taught the same target words by the traditional translation-based approach. Vocabulary instruction lasted for 16 weeks, and the data analysis was based on their performances on the word recognition test and the results of the individual interviews. The major findings are as follows. (1)The participants who received the instruction of sound symbolism performed significantly better on the word recognition test than those who were taught the traditional translation-based approach. (2) In the experimental group, both the high and low proficiency learners made significant progress, indicating the instruction of sound symbolism was effective in different proficiency groups. (3) The participants held positive attitude toward the instruction of sound symbolism and felt that the instruction was helpful for vocabulary memorization, especially on the aspect of word recognition. Some pedagogical implications and recommendations for future research were presented at the end of the thesis.

近年來3D虛擬環境與語音界面(Voice User Interface)在個人電腦上的應用逐漸受到重視。說話是人類最自然的溝通方式，若能在虛擬環境中加入語音界面，將使人物間的互動更為流暢。近年來雖有許多研究致力於3D虛擬環境與語音界面的整合，但在多人環境中對話管理(Dialog Management)等相關問題上，一直缺乏有效的解決方案。本研究的主要目的，即在解決語音界面整合及對話管理等問題，並實現多人虛擬環境的語音互動機制。我們針對虛擬環境中語音與動畫同步、對話管理機制與多人環境中之語音處理機制等問題，設計一個以VoiceXML為基礎的XAML-V (eXtensible Animation Markup Language – Voice extension ) 語言，並將其實作結果於一個多人虛擬環境系統中驗証其可行性及有效性。 / The applications of 3D virtual environments and voice user interface (VUI) on personal computers have received significant attentions in recent years. Since speech is the most natural way of communication, incorporating VUI into virtual environments can enhance user interaction and immersiveness. Although there have been many researches addressing the issue of integrating VUI and 3D virtual environment, most of the proposed solutions do not provide an effective mechanism for multi-user dialog management. The objective of this research is on providing a solution for VUI integration and dialog management and realizing such a mechanism in a multi-user virtual environment. We have designed a dialog scripting language called XAML-V (eXtensible Animation Markup Language – Voice Extension), based on the VoiceXML standard, to address the issues of synchronization between VUI and animation and dialog management for multi-user interaction. We have also implemented such a language and realized it on a multi-user virtual environment to evaluate the effectiveness of this design.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地域研究) / 甲第20502号 / 地博第221号 / 新制||地||80(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院アジア・アフリカ地域研究研究科グローバル地域研究専攻 / (主査)教授 稲葉 穣, 教授 東長 靖, 教授 中溝 和弥, 教授 田辺 明生 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Area Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

本論文從發音語音學與聲學語音學之觀點研究英語字彙之語音表義現象，其中包括英語中主要五個元音與央元音，二十個輔音，二十九個字首二輔音群，以及六個字首三輔音群。此外也提出語音表義在英語教學上之啟示。首先，語音表義字彙教學配合見字識音法，可以成為形音義三者結合之教學。再者，由於語音表義字彙教學必須透過聯想力建立聲音與意義之間的關聯，因此可以轉被動沈悶之字彙學習為主動活潑之認知歷程，符合認知學習之原則。同時語音表義字彙教學可以訓練學習者之音韻覺識能力，以求在發音、拼字與閱讀方面收長期之效。此外，語音表義字彙教學法可以與其他字彙教學法如「字首字根字尾解字教學法」，或是「上下文語境字彙教學」相輔相成，也同時彌補此兩種教學法不足之處。最後，英語語音學教師若選擇符合語音表義現象之例字，言傳語音特色將會更容易。 本論文完整探討英語中語音表義現象，具有以下幾點貢獻。首先，本文從發音語音學並配合聲學語音學上之佐證完整探討英語語音表義現象，是前所未見的。此外，將語音之歷史發展納入研究考慮因素，認為二輔音群如sc-、sch-、sk-與sh-以及三輔音群scr-與shr-分別具有相同之語音表義現象。而在含有輔音s之輔音群部分，根據Kaye（1992）以及優選理論，本論文將s與後繼語音視為異音節來討論其語音表義現象，亦為本文另一獨特之分析。另外，本論文證明英語中除了擬聲字以外，在聲音與意義之間仍有許多自然之關聯。 / This thesis aims to explore the phenomena of sound symbolism (SS hereafter) in English in terms of articulatory phonetics and acoustic phonetics. The scope of the research covers 5 cardinal vowels, the schwa sounds, 20 single consonants, 29 word-initial two-letter consonant clusters, and 6 word-initial three-letter consonant clusters. Meanwhile, there are some implications on English pedagogy found in the research. First, by providing the association between sound and meaning, SS enriches phonics, which deals with the relationship between spelling and sound, so that spelling, sound and meaning are combined in English vocabulary teaching. Besides, SS turns passive, teacher-centered vocabulary instruction into an active, student-centered one, and this corresponds with the principles of cognitive learning theory. Moreover, the application of SS in teaching English language will help develop learners’ phonological awareness, which improves their pronunciation, spelling and reading abilities. SS at the same time completes other vocabulary teaching methods. Lastly, SS strengthens the instruction of English phonetics in that, if provided with some example words subject to SS phenomena, the features of a sound will be observed and conveyed more easily. Complete in the analysis of SS in English, this thesis pioneers in the following aspects. First of all, this topic is treated in the viewpoint of both articulatory phonetics and acoustic phonetics. Secondly, the historical development of a sound is taken into consideration, and consonant clusters such as sch-、sk- and sh-, therefore, are deemed to have the same sound-meaning relationship with sc- and shr- with scr-. Besides, such s-initial consonant clusters as sl-, sm-, and st- are analyzed in an unprecedented way, some phonological evidences considered. Finally, this thesis proves that there are other non-arbitrary associations between sound and meaning besides onomatopoeic words.

在語言學文獻上，對於音段在連併音節上的研究已非常眾多且詳細。而目前也有不少學者開始處理音節連併的超音段(聲調)部分，但是大多數研究是從音韻學的觀點。本文試圖從聲學語音學的角度，檢驗連併音節的產生與說話者的速度、說話者對內容熟悉度之間的關係；及分析連併音節的基頻與其音節長度。實驗統計結果證實說話者的速度與內容熟悉度的確與連併音節成正相關。三名以台灣地區的國語為母語的受試者，被要求分別錄製五段短文，各短文裡分別有數十個可能產生雙音節連併的詞組。在連併音節的基頻分析結果顯示，呈現出些微降調及升調兩種調型。我們並且發現，連併前的聲調起始值(onset)為產生連併聲調的最佳基本單位，我們也歸納出兩條規則來加以解釋。另外，在連併音節的長度分析結果顯示，連併音節所需的時間單位比起一般音節更短。綜合以上結果，我們暸解除了可經由規則推論出連併音節的調型之外，在語音的面向上，這些連併聲調皆呈現出較窄的調域、居中的調值和較短時間等的特徵。因此從本研究的結果顯示，我們較傾向支持連併音節是類似於輕重音表現的說法，而不再局限於本身的調值的衍算與否。另外，對於在我們分析過程所發現伴隨著連併音節的鼻音現象，證明了一般認為在快速語流中，共同發音所產生的自然現象，也給予了認為鼻音是另屬一個自主音段的說法更進一步的實證支持。 / Segment deletion or merger in contracted syllables has been well understood in the literature. Several researchers have also been investigating the tones in contracted syllables. However, most of their researches are based on phonology. The present study analyzes the tones in disyllabic contraction by examining its relationship with speech rate and familiarity. It also analyzes the fundamental frequency (F0) and duration of the contracted tones. An experiment was conducted to explore the idea that familiarity with the test materials and the rate of speech correlate positively with the occurrences of tone contraction. Three native speakers of Mandarin Chinese (in Taiwan region) recorded five paragraphs, each of which contains dozens of possible disyllabic contractions. Analysis of F0 reveals that there are basically two types of tonal shapes of contracted syllables—slightly falling and rising; and the onsets of the original syllable tonal units are the most adequate portions of forming a contracted tone. Two governing rules were generalized from various the findings of the experiments. Results of duration indicate less time is taken by a contracted syllable than an uncontracted one. The findings of this study provide support for the view that the contours of the contracted tones are predicted by rules. They also show that much of the variability of F0 contours in contracted syllables exhibits a fixed tonal pattern (narrower pith range, more middle tonal height, and shorter length) and that contracted tones has an accentual character in essence. In addition, the nasality accompanying contracted syllables in this study provides testimony to the natural co-occurrence of nasal and oral features in fast speech and at the same time also give support to the hypothesis that nasality acts on a separate autosegmental tier.

語音學科中關於語段課題的學習，能夠幫助我們在口語上清楚的表達語義，此課題在語音課程裡有時被用作為俄語學習者口語表現之練習。完整語句中的語段切分，以停頓為表現手法之一。關於語段停頓方面的現象，為學習俄語者較少注意的課題。學習俄語者未經過訓練，導致在口語實踐時，停頓位置的誤置。停頓誤置的原因有時是生理的需求，像是一口氣說完整個句子後再做換氣的動作；或是在口語實踐時，忽略整體語義的完整性以及當時的語境，造成不正確的停頓。基於此，本論文經由語音實驗的方式，期望能找出學生們在俄語口語實踐中的停頓習慣現象，以及分析出常見之停頓錯誤，最終的目的為透過數據的呈現，探討不正確停頓的原因，並且解析語段及語義關係，以期在口語實踐中正確地掌握停頓位置。

本計畫擬於優選理論 (Prince & Smolensky 1993/2004) 框架下，探討現代華語擬聲詞在音韻上的特點與表現，並分析優選理如何論操作單音節及雙音節輸入項所衍生出的雙音節擬聲詞，進而完全或部分重疊成三音節及四音節華語擬聲詞。擬聲詞為模仿自然界中的聲音形成的詞彙，但並非隨意衍生形成，仍然需要遵循語言的構詞及音韻規律，才能衍生成為合法詞彙並順暢地使用。在華語音韻研究方面，歷來學者對於擬聲詞的討論並不豐富詳盡，因此本碩士論文便嘗試探討華語雙音節、三音節及四音節擬聲詞在音韻分析中的樣貌。 重疊在漢語擬聲詞中為極為常見的現象。如現代華語中單音節的「咕」與雙音節的「咕咕」；雙音節的「滴答」與四音節的「滴滴答答」。故擬聲詞衍生中的重疊機制為本計畫中主要討論議題，此外由於華語擬聲詞結構在音段選擇中展現一致性，故另聚焦於固定音段， 如邊音/l/及前元音/i/在現代華語擬聲詞中高度頻繁地出現，我將對其起源提出假設並分析，如現代華語「劈哩啪啦」的/l/及/i/。而華語雙音節擬聲詞的來源二分為單音節輸入項及雙音節輸入項亦為討論對象。 最後預期華語擬聲詞大致符合現代華語成詞的語法，但進行重疊時與實詞相異，語意因素不會成為衍生動機；經由優選理論分析，從音韻結構角度切入，不僅可了解華語擬聲詞衍生的制約排序，亦更加了解其音韻構詞規範，且與實詞如形容詞進行重疊時的制約排序進行比較，說明華語擬聲詞在衍生過程中傾向遵循邊緣音韻規則，與其他實詞多依據核心音韻 規則的狀況大異其趣。以此為基石去了解其他漢語方言對於擬聲成詞的標準，甚或研究日語、韓語中豐富的擬聲詞，便能構擬出擬聲成詞更具體且具有說服力的語法規則。 / In this thesis, the generation of Modern Mandarin disyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia under phonological viewpoint via Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolensky 1993/2004) approach will be discussed. In my M.A. Thesis ‘An OT analysis of Mandarin Onomatopoeia’, four factors motivated this study. First, the different sources of Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia which I thought there are monosyllabic and disyllabic inputs aroused my interests. Second, there are some similarities of Mandarin onomatopoeia between Mandarin core lexicons. Third, the reduplication mechanism in Mandarin onomatopoeia will be taken as a main point in this study. For example, in Modern Mandarin ‘gu’ (Sound of bird sing once) will extend into ‘gugu’ (Sound of birdsong) under total reduplication. Finally, the issue concerning what will be the best choice when Mandarin onomatopoeia is reduplicated with fixed segmentism also plays an important role in this study. For instance, the /l/ and /i/ in Modern Mandarin’s ‘pilipala’ (Sound of many things falling). Onomatopoeias have their special function as sound-imitating icons. They are not the words which are formed by arbitrary but by the rules. They sometimes violate phonological structures of the language in which they occur; hence they belong to the peripheral phonology rather than core one. The Mandarin onomatopoeia is different from Mandarin content words; they are not motivated by semantic factors. So the Chinese onomatopoeia generation analysis via OT approach supplies not only the morpho-phonological constraints but also the comparison of peripheral words between content words. I would like to assume that the Mandarin onomatopoeia generation follows the peripheral phonological rules. This study will provide as a basement to study on other Chinese language’s onomatopoeia or even onomatopoeia in Tibetan, Japanese and Korean.

University of Macau / Faculty of Arts and Humanities. / Department of Chinese Language and Literature