This thesis gives a detailed overview about the electronic and magnetic structure of three different kinds of 3d-transition metal based materials with potential for possible future applications. The presented materials are a series of “high-k” rare-earth scandates, RScO3 (R=Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb and Dy), the muliferroic layered oxide LuFe2O4, and three iron-based magnetic polyoxometalates of the type {(M)M5}Fe30 (M =Mo,W). The samples are examined by several different x-ray spectroscopic techniques and complementary theoretical approaches, namely multiplet calculations and first principles electronic structure calculations, respectively. The occupied electronic states are determined by photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES). The unoccupied states are investigated by x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). X-ray magnetic circular dichroim (XMCD) is used to get the element specific magnetic moment of the materials, and these results are compared to SQUID measurements.

In this thesis the influence of different growth conditions on the structural and the magnetic properties of magnetite were analyzed. Therefore, ultrathin Fe3O4 films were grown on MgO(001) substrates, on NiO, and on Fe pre-covered MgO(001) substrates. In the first part of this thesis magnetite films with different film thicknesses were deposited directly on MgO by RMBE to investigate the thickness dependence of the anomalous strain and the in-plane magnetic anisotropy. Surface sensitive methods like XPS and LEED have shown that all films in the investigated thickness range are stoichiometric and epitactic magnetite. Bulk sensitive XRD experiments at the specular rod point to well-ordered films with homogenous film thickness indicated by the distinct Laue oscillations. However, the vertical layer distances are smaller than expected even for strained magnetite. Raman measurements were carried out to clarify this contradiction between surface sensitive and bulk sensitive measurements. While the 20 nm and 30 nm films exhibit the typical bands for magnetite, no distinct bands can be observed for the 7.6 nm film. Due to this results we first assume a partial formation of a thin maghemite layer on top of the uncapped magnetite film under ambient conditions. Nevertheless, additional XPS measurement exclude the complete oxidation of magnetite to maghemite since there is no significantly increased Fe3+-signal visible. Thus, the low vertical layer distance can be attributed to the presence of APBs causing an anomalous strain relaxation as reported in literature. Although all films feature ferromagnetic behavior there are differences in the characteristic of the magnetic in-plane anisotropy. The 7.6 nm film has an in-plane magnetic isotropy while the 20 nm and 30 nm film have an in-plane fourfold magnetic anisotropy. Here, the fourfold magnetic anisotropy is stronger for the 20 nm magnetite film than for the 30 nm film. The critical film thickness for the transition from magnetic isotropy to magnetic fourfold anisotropy may be influenced by film thickness and lattice strain induced by the substrate. The second part of this thesis features the thickness dependence of the structural quality of Fe3O4/NiO bilayers. Each film of the Fe3O4/NiO bilayer on MgO(001) have been successfully grown by RMBE. LEED and XPS experiments have proven that the surface near regions of the distinct films have high structural and stoichiometric properties. Here, too, the detailed ’bulk’ structural characterization of Fe3O4/NiO bilayers were carried out using XRD. It was shown that the Fe3O4 films grow homogeneously and smoothly on NiO films if the NiO film thickness is below 24 nm. Above this NiO film thickness the structural quality of the magnetite films gets distinctly worse. This behavior can be attributed to the fact that the interface roughness between NiO and Fe3O4 depends on the NiO film thickness. The roughness of the 3 nm NiO film is rather small and it is rising obviously with increasing NiO film thickness. Thus, the structural quality of the magnetite films grown on 30 nm NiO films is constantly reduced with increasing magnetite film thickness since the quality of the Fe3O4 films is influenced by the quality of the Fe3O4/NiO interface. In the third study the influence of initial iron buffer layers on the magnetic properties of magnetite grown on MgO(001) substrates has been investigated. In situ XPS and LEED indicate that the structural and stoichiometric properties of the surface near region of the magnetite films are not influenced by the iron buffer layer. However, the structural and magnetic properties of the whole film have changed compared to magnetite grown directly on MgO as shown by XRD and MOKE. The crystalline quality is poor and the magnetic easy axis of the magnetic in-plane anisotropy is rotated by 45◦ compared to magnetite films grown directly on MgO. Both crystalline quality and the rotation of the magnetic in-plane anisotropy show no dependence on the film thickness. However, the strength of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy decreases with increasing film thickness. XPS and XRD measurements have indicated that the iron buffer layer is completely oxidized during the second growth stage of the magnetite. The small Kerr rotation in the MOKE experiments of the samples with film thicknesses up to 28 nm confirms this result since a remaining iron film would cause a higher Kerr rotation. In the last part of this thesis the structural and magnetic properties of a partially oxidized, a completely oxidized and a metallic iron film are analyzed. The partially oxidized iron film is a bilayer with a metallic iron film and an iron oxide film. The surface near stoichiometry of both oxidized iron films correspond to magnetite as proven by XPS. The structural analysis by XRD reveals that though these magnetite films are crystalline, they have an inhomogeneous thickness. The magnetization curves of the partially oxidized film (bilayer) measured by MOKE exhibit a magnetic saturation which is comparable to the magnetic saturation of the single metallic iron film. However, the coercive field is higher compared to the single metallic iron film due to the high interface roughnesses. Considering the coercive field as a function of the sample rotation α the bilayer exhibits a fourfold anisotropy with eight maxima. However, the angular dependence of the magnetic remanence features a simple fourfold anisotropy with easy axes in h110i directions of MgO(001). Vector MOKE analysis displays that the magnetic reversal processes of the bilayer are similar to single metallic iron films. Thus, the bilayer exhibits mostly the magnetic properties of a single iron film. The bilayer has the same magnetic easy axis and a similar magnetic saturation. The magnetic easy axis of the magnetic in-plane anisotropy of the completely oxidized iron film is rotated by 45◦ compared to magnetite films grown directly on MgO as already observed in Ref. [148]. The completely oxidized iron film exhibits also a significantly increased coercive field due to high surface roughness. A magneto-dynamic investigation of the exchange-coupling of the Fe3O4/Fe bilayer system was carried out to yield all relevant magnetic parameters, such as anisotropies, as well as the coupling constant J1. Here, also a complex fourfold anisotropy was observed, which might be due to a coupling of a perpendicular spin-wave mode in the magnetite layer with the acoustical coupling mode. We have also successfully calculated the angular dependence of the resonance field of all films using the eighth order of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy. Although we have applied many measurement methods, we have found no explanation for the complex fourfold angular dependence of the coercive field of the bilayer. Nevertheless, this bilayer provides interesting properties for application in MTJs due to its enhanced magnetic properties like complex fourfold magnetic anisotropy and higher coercive field and remanence. All in all, we have shown that the structural and magnetic properties of magnetite films are strongly influenced by interlayers between film and substrate. While magnetite films directly deposited on MgO exhibit a homogeneous film thickness, both NiO interlayers with a thickness above 24 nm and initially grown iron films deteriorate the structural quality of the on top grown magnetite films. In addition, the magnetic fourfold anisotropy is rotated by 45◦ in comparison to magnetite films grown directly on MgO for the structurally disturbed magnetite on iron pre-covered MgO substrates. Here, further investigations are necessary to understand why this anisotropy rotation occurs and how we can improve the structural quality of magnetite on iron and NiO. The growth of magnetite by oxidizing previously deposited iron films leads to crystalline magnetite films but with inhomogeneous film thicknesses. In case of a Fe3O4/Fe bilayer, the magnetic properties are drastically changed due to the magnetic coupling between the iron and the magnetite film.

No description available.

No description available.

Nach der Entwicklung des Nicht-Kontakt-Rasterkraftmikroskops (NC-AFM) konnten dessen Leistung, Empfindlichkeit und Anwendungsmöglichkeiten deutlich gesteigert und somit neue grundlegende physikalische Eigenschaften von Festkörperoberflächen mit hoher Auflösung und Präzision untersucht werden. Dabei gibt es jedoch immer wieder neue Errungenschaften, die die Technik noch weiter verbessern können – sei es auf dem Gebiet der Signalverarbeitung, der -detektion oder der prinzipiellen Funktionsweise des Mikroskops. So wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit das theoretische Verständnis der Regelkreise und des Rauschverhaltens des NC-AFMs im Messbetrieb verbessert. Die Regelkreise verhalten sich – anders als im freischwingenden System – in Wechselwirkungsnähe mit der Probe hochgradig dynamisch, sodass die ursprünglich gewählten Parameter der Regelkreise sich nicht eins zu eins auf den echten Messbetrieb übertragen lassen und suboptimale Einstellungen die Bildqualität dadurch beeinträchtigen können. Mithilfe der korrekten Modellierung der Regelkreise in Probennähe kann diese Störquelle nun minimalisiert werden, was durch experimentell bestimmte Spektren bestätigt wird. Bei der Exfoliation von Graphen auf CaF2 an der Raumluft werden Wassermoleküle eingeschlossen, die nicht durch Heizen entfernt werden können, ohne dass das Graphen Blasen schlägt und reißt. Unterschiedliche Mengen an Wasser zwischen den Graphenflocken und dem Substrat haben einen großen Einfluss auf das elektrische Kontaktpotenzial, das mithilfe der Kelvin-Sonden-Kraftmikroskopie vermessen werden kann. Ergebnisse der Kapitel sind die berechnete Adhäsionsenergie von Graphen auf CaF2, inwieweit das Wasser das Graphen dotieren kann und die Erklärung des großen Unterschieds des Kontaktpotenzials.

In this thesis the morphology and the atomic structure of quasi-one-dimensional structures grown on Si were determined by means of diffraction experiments in combination with kinematic diffraction theory calculations. In the first and the second study a formerly unknown superstructure of Dy/Tb on Si(111) was characterized by means of STM, DFT, SPA-LEED experiments and kinematic diffraction calculations. Here, a structure model could be proposed which contains half as many subsurface Si vacancies as compared to the well-known superstructure of Dy/Tb on Si(111) it was derived from. Due to the decreased number of subsurface Si vacancies the reconstruction is subject to an uni-axial strain which is mitigated by the formation of domains separated by anti-phase domain boundaries. It could be shown that two different types of domains alternate across the surface forming quasi-one-dimensional domains. Additionally, the distribution of the domains could be derived by comparison with kinematic diffraction calculations. In the third study a deeper insight into the complex system of bundled rare-earth silicide nanowires on Si(001) was given. Here, the distributions of the NW width, the bundle width and the bundle distance were deduced from the diffraction patterns collected by SPA-LEED and the subsequent comparison to kinematic diffraction theory calculations. Additionally, it was shown that the (2 x 1) reconstruction sometimes observed on top of the NWs by STM cannot exist over larger parts of the sample and instead a (1 x 1) reconstruction needs to be assumed to explain the experimentally observed diffraction data. In the fourth study the atomic structure of the gold induced atomic wires of the Si(111)-(5 x 2)-Au system was analyzed. The Patterson function of the in-plane SXRD data was compared to the Patterson functions derived from the atomic structure models proposed in literature (AN, EBH, KK) ruling out the AN-model. By comparison of the experimental out-of-plane SXRD data to the corresponding (calculated) SXRD data for the EBH- and the KK-model the KK-model could be identified as the most probable model. Additionally, a refined atomic structure model was derived for the KK-model. In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis clearly display the power of diffraction experiments especially in conjunction with the comparison to kinematic diffraction theory calculations and prove that they are applicable even to low dimensional (e.g., quasi-one-dimensional) structures. Furthermore, it was shown that diffraction experiments can deliver complementary information (e.g., information on deeper atomic layers) as compared to local probing methods (e.g. STM or Atomic Force Microscopy) and especially the combination of local probing methods, DFT calculations and diffraction experiments allows for the explanation of even very complicated material systems.

The discovery of superconductivity in iron-based pnictides in 2008 gave rise to a high advance in the research of high-temperature superconductors. But up to now there is no generally admitted theory of the non-BCS mechanism of these superconductors. The electron and hole doped Ba122 (BaFe2As2) compounds investigated in this thesis are supposed to be suitable model systems for studying the electronic behavior in order to shed light on the superconducting mechanisms. The 3d-transiton metal doped Ba122 compounds are investigated using the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) and X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD), while the completely hole doped K122 is observed using XPS. The experimental measurements are complemented by theoretical calculations. A further new class of superconductors is represented by the electride 12CaO*7Al2O3: Here superconductivity can be realized by electrons accommodated in the crystallographic sub-nanometer-sized cavities, while the mother compound is a wide band gap insulator. Electronic structure investigations, represented by XPS, XAS and resonant X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (ResPES), carried out in this work, should help to illuminate this unconventional superconductivity and resolve a debate of competing models for explaining the existence of superconductivity in this compound.

In this work the transient non-instantaneous polarization, i.e., laser-pulse injected small polarons and self-trapped excitons, is studied in the perovskite-like ferroelectric lithium niobate. The investigations span a time scale from femtoseconds to several hours. It is shown that the established small polaron picture is not able to describe transient absorption and photoluminescence of lithium niobate consistently. Several strong indications are presented demonstrating that the photoluminescence cannot be caused by geminate small polaron annihilation. Instead, the idea of radiatively decaying self-trapped excitons at the origin of the blue-green photoluminescence is revived. Excitons pinned on defect sites are proposed to lead to the already observed long-lived transient absorption in the blue spectral range in Mg- and Fe-doped crystals. Excitons pinned on iron-defects are studied in more detail. Their spectral fingerprint and absorption cross section is determined. Furthermore, it is shown that the occurrence of these pinned STEs can be tailored by chemical treatment of the samples and the experimental parameters such as the pump pulse intensity and photon energy. Based on the new experimental results and reviewing data published in literature, an atomistic picture of hopping and pinning of self-trapped excitons in lithium niobate is proposed. The question is addressed whether small polarons and self-trapped excitons in lithium niobate are coupled species in the sense that oppositely-charged polarons may merge into self-trapped excitons or STEs break into small polaron pairs. Decay kinetics of transient absorption and luminescence assigned to free small polarons and STEs indicate that this is not the case. For a more complete picture the ultrafast time scale is investigated as well. The formation times of small polarons and STEs are determined, which both lie in the range of 200 fs. No indications are found on the (sub)picosecond time scale indicating a coupling of both quasi-particle species either. In order to gain access to the formation of self-trapped excitons a custom-built femtosecond broadband fluorescence upconversion spectrometer is installed. Based on an already existing scheme, it is adapted to the inspection of weakly luminescent solid samples by changing to an all reflective geometry for luminescence collection. To avoid the necessity for an experimentally determined photometric correction of the used setup, an already established calculation method is extended considering the finite spectral bandwidth of the gate pulses. The findings presented here are important not only as fundamental research, but also regarding the technical application of lithium niobate and other similar nonlinear optical crystals. The simultaneous occurrence of both small polarons and self-trapped excitons is a rather rarely described phenomenon. Usually, the optical response of wide band gap oxide dielectrics is associated with only one of these quasi-particle species. This work may therefore be a stimulus to review the existing microscopic models for transient phenomena in other oxide dielectrics, which may help to improve their application in nonlinear optical and electro-optical devices. In this context the ultrafast transient photoluminescence spectroscopy established here for weakly luminescing solid samples may again provide valuable insight. With respect to lithium niobate, the results do not only resolve inconsistencies between the microscopic pictures described in literature, but also provide information regarding the extends to which the propagation of ultrashort laser pulses may be affected by (pinned-)STE absorption. It is shown that tailoring of the long-lived absorption center in the blue spectral range is possible, which may be used to avoid optical damage when high repetition rates are applied. It is important to emphasize that the microscopic model proposed in this work is mainly based on experimental indications. It is the task of further detailed theoretical investigations, e.g., via time-dependent density functional theory, to test whether the proposed model is justified. From an experimental perspective the important question remains whether (pinned-)STEs contribute to a photorefractive effect. In the experimentally easily accessible spectral range no absorption feature of mobile STEs is observed. As a complementary experimental technique, ultrafast holographic spectroscopy may reveal an excitonic contribution to photorefraction and provide further insight to STE transport and pinning phenomena.

In this work the structural transitions of the rare earth oxides praseodymia and ceria grown on Si(111) are investigated. It is demonstrated that several of the rare earth intermediate phases can be stabilizied by post deposition annealing in ultra high vacuum. However, in most cases no single phased but coexisting species are observed. In addition, the surface structure and morphology of hex-Pr2O3(0001) as well as reduced ceria films are investigated.

Das epitaktische Wachstum von III-V Verbundhalbleitern aber auch von Germaniumpufferschichten auf Germaniumsubstraten bildet bspw. das Fundament zur Herstellung von Triple bzw. Multi Junction Solarzellen. Dies erfolgt mittels etablierter Verfahren, wie der metallorganischen Gasphasenepitaxie (MOVPE). Die Germaniumsubstrate liegen üblicherweise in Form von Wafern einer Dicke von mehr als 150 µm vor. Um die Solarzellen bspw. entsprechend ihrer Anwendungsgebiete im Weltraum oder der Mikroelektronik zu optimieren, bedarf es einer signifikanten Schichtdickenreduzierung. Standardprozesse, die dies gewährleisten beinhalten chemische, wie auch mechanische Arbeitsschritte, die sich überaus nachteilig auf eine Wiederverwendung der abgetragenen Germaniumschicht auswirken. Eine Möglichkeit das Germaniumsubstrat auf eine Zieldicke von einigen Mikrometern zu minimieren, sowie die Verwendung des restlichen Germaniumsubstrats zu gewährleisten basiert auf der Herstellung eines porösen Germaniumschichtstapels, sowie einem anschließenden Hochtemperaturprozess. Dieses Verfahren wird als Layer Transfer Prozesses (LTP) bzw. Lift-off bezeichnet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die bipolare elektrochemische Porosifikation p-dotierter Germaniumsubstrate in wässriger Flusssäure, sowie das Tempern mesoporöser Schichtstapel unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre untersucht. Dabei sollte allgemein ein tieferes Verständnis des Ätzvorgangs, sowie der resultierenden porösen Schichten in Abhängigkeit der Ätzparameter erfolgen. Diesbezüglich wurden zunächst Ätzexperimente unter Verwendung konstanter Parameter, sogenannte einstufige Ätzexperimente, durchgeführt. Die Ätzstrome lagen für alle Experimente bei (0.25 – 7) mA/cm2 unter Verwendung der Pulsdauern von (0.25 – 2) s und Gesamtprozessdauern von bis zu 230 Minuten. Es hat sich gezeigt, dass unter Verwendung konstanter Parameter die Herstellung eines porösen Schichtstapels im Sinne eines Lift-off Prozesses ausgeschlossen ist. Focussed Ion Beam Milling Experimente an ausgewählten porösen Schichten, basierend auf einstufigen Ätzexperimenten, konnten allerdings die Porositätsverläufe in Abhängigkeiten der porösen Schichtdicke offenbaren. Auf diese Weise konnten die verästelten (Pinetree & Fishbone), sowie schwammartigen (Sponge) porösen Strukturen aufgrund von Porositätswerten zwischen 0% - 50% als potenzielle Epitaxievorlagen nach dem Tempern identifiziert werden. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Bedingung zur Durchführung erfolgreicher Focussed Ion Beam Milling Experimente in besonderem Maße von der Probendicke, sowie der Beschleunigungsspannung der Galliumkationen abhängt. Auf diese Weise generierte „Stapel“ an REM-Bildern wurden anschließend zur 3D-Rekonstruktion der verästelten Struktur herangezogen. Des Weiteren konnte mit Hilfe der Polystyrol-Infiltration ausgewählter poröser Schichten, deren anschließender Kalteinbettung in Kunststoff, einem Schleifvorgang, sowie anschließender Auflösung des Kunstoffs in Toluol, eine weitere Charakterisierungsmethode etabliert werden. Diese erlaubt es Einflüsse auf die poröse Schicht, bspw. Brechartefakte oder unebene Bruchstellen, zu vernachlässigen. Der Vorteil dieser Methode liegt in der überaus kürzeren Auswertung der Messdaten zur Bestimmung der Porositätsverläufe in Abhängigkeit der porösen Schichtdicke im Vergleich zum Focussed Ion Beam Milling. Weiterhin wurden basierend auf den Erkenntnissen der einstufigen Ätzexperimente zwei- und mehrstufige Ätzexperimente durchgeführt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die poröse Schichtform und Porosität nach dem ersten Ätzprozess ausschlaggebend für das Resultat nach dem bzw. den Anschlussprozess(en) ist. So tendieren hochporöse schwammartige Strukturen zu einer Steigerung der Porosität, sowie einer Transformation zu einer dendritischen Form. Überwiegt zusätzlich die Ätzpulsdauer die Passivierpulsdauer kommt es beinahe bei jeglicher porösen Ausgangsschicht zu einer Ablösung der porösen Gesamtschicht nach dem Anschlussprozess. Eine Transformation der Ausgangsschicht erfolgte nicht für das Vorliegen einer niederporösen verästelten Struktur, sowie einer kürzeren Ätzpulsdauer als der Passivierpulsdauer für alle anschließenden Ätzprozesse. Zusätzlich konnte die Verwendung eines Passivierprozesses dazu beitragen, poröse Schichten sukzessive herzustellen ohne eine signifikante Veränderung der bereits vorliegenden Schichten herbeizuführen. In diesem Sinne gelang eine gezielte Steigerung der Porosität im Sinne des Lift-off Prozesses. Die Wirkungsweise der Anschlussprozesse konnte auf das Vorliegen verschieden ausgedehnter und an Ladungsträger verarmter Zonen währen des Ätz- bzw. Passivierpulses in Kombination mit der Hydroxid-Passivierung der Germaniumoberflächenatome zurückgeführt werden. Sodann erfolgte das Tempern von drei verschiedenen porösen Schichtstapeln bestehend aus verästelten und schwammartigen Strukturen bei Temperaturen von 700 °C & 800 °C für 30 Minuten unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre. Es hat sich gezeigt, dass niederporöse verästelte Strukturen als Diffusionsbarriere wirken und zugleich beim Vorhanden hochporöser schwammartiger Strukturen eine Diffusion lateral zur Waferoberfläche begünstigen kann. Rasterkraftmikroskopuntersuchungen konnten weiterhin bestätigen, dass die quadratische Rauigkeit der Oberfläche bei einer Annealingtemperatur von 800 °C und insbesondere beim Vorliegen niederporöser verästelter Strukturen in unmittelbarer Nähe der Waferoberfläche sinkt. Zusammenfassend bieten die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit ein umfassendes Verständnis für die Herstellung verschiedener poröser Germaniumschichten. Im Zusammenhang mit den durchgeführten Annealingexperimenten können diese gezielt zur Herstellung eines Schichtstapels im Sinne des Lift-off Prozesses verwendet werden. Erste Epitaxieexperimente von InGaAs und InGaP zeigten anhand der ermittelten Threading Dislocation Densities (TDD) bereits einen vielversprechenden Trend auf.