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The purpose of this thesis is threefold. It attempts, while describing the outstanding incidents in the Life of Louis Philippe, to show that the impressions received during his early life profoundly influenced his policy as King of the French, and had a stronger effect upon his later actions than the circumstances of the world in which he actually moved. It attempts to depict the development of the Anglo-French alliance, and to show Louis Philippe's vital services to European diplomacy in the fostering of the Entente Cordiale. The writer has laid especial stress on the Franco-Spanish relations, and has not only attempted by a chronological narrative to unravel the problem of the Spanish Marriages, but by a study of the papers relative to Louis Philippe's adventures with Spain in 1808 and 1810, has been able to consider the Spanish Question in the light of these previous transactions, which were practically unknown. The thesis is divided into eight chapters, the first two dealing with his life story from 1773-1830, the third and fourth with the July monarchy from 1830-1840; while the fifth and. sixth/ sixth, continuing the narrative of the reign, deal especially with Anglo French relations and the Spanish Marriages. The seventh chapter describes the causes and course of the social revolution of 1848, and the last chapter is an epilogue on the last years of Louis Philippe. The writer hopes that this thesis will be a contribution, however slight, towards the better knowledge of a personality too long neglected by the history students of this country. The work for the thesis was done in Aberdeen, in the British Museum and Public Record Office, London, and the Bibliotheque Nationals, Paris.

In the last twenty-five years, many historians have focused on the salon as a nexus of Enlightenment France, describing the institution as one of the 'origins of the French Revolution' and as 'central' to an understanding of modern French and European societies. In my thesis, I challenge this widely accepted argument and propose that our understanding of this institution must be revised. I demonstrate that the salon story is a nineteenth century phenomenon rather than an eighteenth-century institution. I begin by demonstrating that the category of the salon has been used anachronistically and was not employed by the so-called salonnieres (i. e. Vichy du Deffand, Lespinasse, Geoffrin) or its members (i. e. Morellet, Delille, d'Alembert) in their extensive correspondence, of which thousands of letters are extant. Eighteenth-century individuals would be astonished and confused to learn that they held and participated in a salon institution. Rather, the concept - with its definitions of female led gatherings in formal interiors - emerges in nineteenth-century published sources, particularly post-Revolutionary memoirs, which are narratives largely shaped by nostalgia and contemporary political partisanship. Often written by individuals who sought to revise views of the ancien regime with stories of a glorious past, these narratives buttressed their attempts to affect political change. Historians' overemphasis on these readily accessible sources has led to their reification of the salon and the attendant acceptance of such nineteenth-century conceptualisations of eighteenth-century lives. It is the purpose of this thesis to analyse this historical problem, to study the evolving forms and functions of these eighteenth-century individuals' lives, and to investigate the development of this nineteenth-century mythmaking. At its' conclusion, a clear distinction will emerge between the everyday practices of these eighteenth-century individuals and the salon idealisation created during the nineteenth century.

This thesis studies the rise of the modern self in France from the aftermath of the French Revolution until the eve of the First Wold War. Building on the work of Michel Foucault, the modern individual is understood as the result of collective practices and beliefs that change across time and space, as well as being inseparable from the problem of governing and shaping the conduct of oneself and others. The focus is placed on how the experience of being a nineteenth-century self was structured, by considering, on the one hand, the explicit discourses and logics that naturalized specific forms of selfhood and made it possible to identify oneself and others as modern subjects and, on the other, the rise of techniques and technologies aimed at producing and reproducing this modern self. These included practices of the self such as moral analysis or self-mastery strategies, as well as the mechanisms for instilling selfhood in others, such as education or domesticity. In particular this thesis considers the mutually-supportive role of the nuclear family at the micro level and social assistance programmes at the macro level. The home and charity office participated in a new form of governing and understanding of authority called guardianship or tutelle. This was a conceptually non-coercive way of moulding those not yet able to govern themselves and others in accordance with freedom, but whose effects extended far beyond the pauper or child. Through mobilizing, sensationalist and threatening images of non-normative subjectivity and family breakdown, social reformers and administrators generated a troubling narrative of both lack and ideal against which poor and rich alike could contrast, measure, and correct the normativity of their own habits and domestic arrangements. This thesis therefore contributes to our understanding of how the modern individual was produced and reproduced as the normative subject of modern collectives.

The July Monarchy period (1830‒48) in France was characterised by numerous political, economic and social changes, which challenged sexual and gender categories, as well as traditional representations of masculinity. As such, they generated anxiety among young men from the middle and upper classes regarding their social role. This malaise was exacerbated by the fact that these men entering adulthood in the 1830s defined their gendered identity in comparison to the unattainable model of virility of the Napoleonic soldier. This thesis argues that July Monarchy literary texts, as well as scientific texts, mirror this masculine malaise and question the sexual dichotomy through the representation of hermaphrodites, effeminate and hyper-masculine men, and masculine women. These sexually ambiguous characters reveal writers’ ambiguous treatment of such a malaise. On the one hand, writers often acknowledge the necessity of a separation of the sexes that supports the gendered division of social roles. Their conservative position is notably shown by the negative depiction of young men as weak, puerile and suspected of homosexuality. On the other hand, however, they question the organisation of July Monarchy bourgeois society and highlight the social flaws that lead to young men’s failure. More significantly, many narratives display alternative gendered models, in which feminine qualities in men favour the regeneration of social order. The archetype of these characters combining masculine and feminine qualities is the figure of the hermaphrodite, who is portrayed as a monster and as an incarnation of ideal beauty. The medium of art is used to counterbalance the sexual dichotomy and transcend homosexuality. In short, this thesis argues that hermaphroditic characters are used in July Monarchy narratives as a means to critique the sexual and gender organisation of society and the subsequent masculine malaise.

Nostalgia was first conceived as a clinical entity in the seventeenth century, and understood as an extreme psychological and physical reaction to dislocation. The condition was interpreted as a rupture of bonds thought to bind individuals to their local environment. This dissertation analyses the medical and political meanings attached to nostalgia in nineteenth-century France. It traces the medical and psychiatric history of nostalgia, and its rise and decline as a nosological category. In contrast to other extant interpretations, it shows how nostalgia was constructed in largely spatial terms. Nostalgia's subsequent temporalisation and internalisation reflect the emergence of new models of subjectivity within French psychology and psychiatry. The dissertation also shows how an examination of a neglected account in medical history can enrich our understanding of French nation-building and nationalism. It demonstrates that medical discussions of nostalgia informed, and were informed by, larger political considerations. In particular, it examines the role of nostalgia in debates about identity, patriotism and national belonging. Even after its demise as a clinical category, the concept continued to carry important ideological meanings relating to the role of the physical environment in human development, and the equation of physical displacement and pathology continued to influence French psychiatric and political discourses until the fin de siecle.

La modernité des écrits flaubertiens déroute ses contemporains mais permet de comprendre comment Flaubert souhaite se positionner dans les marges. Il refuse les étapes classiques de la vie bourgeoise que sont le mariage, la paternité et l’achat d’un bien immobilier. L’histoire de la construction de la notoriété flaubertienne est aussi une démarche pour comprendre les lieux de mémoire et les lieux de souvenirs. Ce rapport au territoire a été pensé au regard de la défense d’un patrimoine local. Nous nous sommes attachés à la complexité des parcours qui rassemblent plutôt qu’ils ne distinguent. Afin de saisir cette mémoire, l’étude des lieux devient incontournable car elle incarne toute la dimension conflictuelle de la figure flaubertienne. Dans la première partie, l’étude a pour objectif de situer Gustave Flaubert dans son temps littéraire en mettant en lumière le tournant majeur que représente Madame Bovary pour l’histoire de la littérature, mais aussi comme fondement de la postérité flaubertienne. Nous expliquons comment se mettent en place les mécanismes de la reconnaissance, dont Flaubert est le principal instigateur grâce à son œuvre. Nous avons présenté un homme complexe, non dans les épisodes de sa vie mais dans sa position d’artiste, tant dans ses idées que dans ses réalisations. D’une curiosité insatiable, que sa dernière œuvre inachevée -Bouvard et Pécuchet- symbolise, les commentaires et actes autour de sa mort en 1880 offrent un visage moins complexe et plus à même de permettre une postérité convenant au plus grand nombre. La deuxième partie tente de comprendre comment ce statut obtenu de son vivant perdure et se transforme après sa mort. Sans la détermination de quelques flaubertistes, ces lieux de souvenir ne pourraient être légitimés. Loin de chercher à enfermer la mémoire de l’écrivain, ces commémorations ont pour but de maintenir une présence flaubertienne matérielle et physique, à l’inverse de sa propre dimension de son vivant. Il représente la figure moderne d’un écrivain inclassable dépassant les querelles d’écoles. Des portraits de 1880 à la célébration de 1921, le chemin parcouru est long et soumis aux difficultés financières mais aussi humaines. La troisième partie approfondit l’affirmation d’une politique patrimoniale -au sens de discours choisi- fonctionnant autant par espaces construits que par cycles temporels. En effet, grâce aux premiers comités, des réalisations patrimoniales se concrétisent autour des premières statues et du Pavillon Flaubert puis avec sa chambre natale. L’ancrage dans des sites multiples prend une importance décisive pour les acteurs de la mise en patrimoine qui s’occupent de les « rendre visibles » pour le grand public. Les notables normands tendent vers l’affirmation d’une culture régionale. C'est le choix de ce qu'il faut célébrer qui définit une politique de commémoration. Ces espaces constituent des parcours touristiques dans une période d’ouverture vers un public nouveau en attente d’un discours constitué. La dernière partie montre comment la présence de manuscrits dans différents lieux touche largement l’organisation des célébrations flaubertiennes. Des groupes de recherche universitaire aux sociétés savantes, les études flaubertiennes présentent des points d’ancrage parfois opposés. Après le rôle important joué par Caroline Commanville, nièce du romancier, le souvenir de l’écrivain gagne une forme d’indépendance. Enfin, le tournant numérique n’est pas à négliger. Leur éclairage nouveau est permis par ces dispositions virtuelles qui facilitent le travail des chercheurs mais aussi l’intérêt de simples curieux. Nous avons pu comprendre que la construction sociale de la notoriété chez Flaubert était aussi un constat des échecs et des pistes oubliées. Des petites querelles rouennaises, après un temps de silence complet de sa ville natale, aux grandes reconnaissances de son génie au XXIe siècle, Gustave Flaubert reste inclassable. / The modernity of the Flaubertian writings challenges his contemporaries but makes it possible to understand how Flaubert wishes to be positioned in the margins. He refuses the classic stages of bourgeois life that are marriage, paternity and the purchase of real estate.The history of the construction of the Flaubertian notoriety is also an approach to understand the places of memories. This relationship to the area has been conceived in relation to the defense of a local heritage. We have focused on the complexity of process that bring together rather than distinguish. In order to capture this memory, the study of places becomes unavoidable because it embodies all the conflicting dimension of the Flaubertian figure. In the first part, the aim of the study is to locate Gustave Flaubert in his literary time by highlighting the major turning point represented by Madame Bovary for the history of literature, but also as a foundation for Flaubertian posterity. We explain how the mechanisms of recognition are set up, Flaubert is the main perpetator thanks to his work. We have presented a complex man, not in the episodes of his life but in his role as an artist, both in his ideas and his achievements. Of an insatiable curiosity, that his last unfinished work - Bouvard and Pécuchet - symbolizes, the comments and acts around his death in 1880 offer a face less complex aspect and is more likely to allow a posterity suitable for the greatest number. The second part attempts to understand how this status obtained during his lifetime continues and evolves after his death. Without the determination of some flaubertists, these places of remembrance could not be legitimized. Far from seeking to lock up the memory of the writer, these commemorations are intended to maintain a flaubertian material and physical presence, in contrary his own dimension during his lifetime. It represents the modern figure of an unclassifiable writer going beyond school quarrels. Portraits from 1880 to the celebration of 1921, the considerable distance is long and subject to financial difficulties but also human. The third part depicts the assertion of a patrimonial policy - in the sense of discourse choosing as much by constructed spaces as by temporal cycles. Indeed, thanks to the first committees, heritage achievements are concretized around the first statues, the Flaubert Pavilion and then with his native chamber. The anchoring in multiple sites takes a decisive importance for the actors of the setting in patrimony which take care of "to make them visible" for the general public. The Norman notables tend towards the affirmation of a regional culture. It is the choice of what to celebrate that defines a commemoration policy. These spaces constitute tourist routes in a period of opening towards a new public waiting for a constituted speech. The last part shows how the presence of manuscripts in different places largely affects the organization of Flaubertian celebrations. From academic research groups to learned societies, Flaubertian studies present sometimes conflicting anchors. After the important role played by Caroline Commanville, niece of the novelist, the memory of the writer gains a form of independence. Finally, the digital turning point is not to be neglected. Their new lighting is enabled by these virtual provisions that facilitate the work of researchers but also the interest of simple curious people. We were able to understand that Flaubert's social construction of notoriety was also an acknowledgment of failures and forgotten paths. For the small quarrels in Rouen, after a period of complete silence of his hometown to the great recognition of his genius in the twenty-first century, Gustave Flaubert remains unclassifiable.

Il existe une véritable « civilisation du théâtre » en France au XIXe siècle. Cette thèse analyse l’ensemble des débats parlementaires qui s’y rapportent de 1789 à 1914 à partir d’un vaste corpus de sources, en particulier les débats budgétaires, les pétitions, les questions et interpellations et les projets de loi. La première partie interroge la contribution parlementaire à la politique théâtrale de l’Etat à travers trois leviers d’action. Le « système du privilège » s’oppose à la logique libérale de l’industrie théâtrale entre 1807 et 1864. La subvention que l’Etat accorde aux théâtres passe de la liste civile au budget de l’Etat à partir de 1820 : ce transfert de souveraineté menace le principe même de la subvention en le soumettant de façon inédite aux aléas des débats parlementaires. La censure constitue le troisième grand levier d’action sur les théâtres, que l’Etat conserve jusqu’en 1905 : l’analyse des arguments pour la justifier ou la combattre met en exergue une corrélation peu évidente entre les convictions énoncées et la culture politique des parlementaires. La seconde partie montre comment leur participation à la politique théâtrale de l’Etat peut être envisagée comme un révélateur de la viepolitique au XIXe siècle. La plongée au cœur de l’action parlementaire, en commission, à la tribune, ou à l’extérieur du Parlement, débouche sur une typologie des parlementaires intervenant sur le théâtre. La question théâtrale est ensuite envisagée au miroir du parlementarisme, tandis que l’instrumentalisation politique des débats sur le théâtre est soulignée à travers les nombreuses digressions internes qui les affectent. La troisième partie s’attèle enfin à comprendre les préoccupations esthétiques et sociales des parlementaires du XIXe siècle à l’égard de la vie théâtrale, envisagée du triple point de vue du répertoire, des auteurs et des artistes, et propose ainsi une histoire parlementaire du goût. / There is a real “theatre civilization” in France in the 19th century. This thesis analyses thewhole of parliamentary debates about this ‘’theatre civilization’’ between 1789 and 1914 based on alarge corpus of sources, including especially the budgetary debates, petitions, questions andinterpellations, and bills. The first part questions the parliamentary contribution to the State theatricalpolicies through three levers of action. The “privilege system” goes against the liberal logic of thetheatre industry between 1807 and 1864. The grant given by the State to the theatres goes from thecivil list to the State budget in 1820 : this sovereignty transfer undermines the very principle of grant,by making it subject to the whims of parliamentary debates in an entirely new way. Censorshipconstitutes the great third lever of action on theatres that the state retains until 1905 : the analysis ofthe arguments aimed at justifying or fighting censorship brings out a not so obvious correlationbetween the expressed beliefs and the political culture of Parliament members. The second part showshow the participation of Parliament members in the State theatre policies can be considered as anindicator of the political life in the 19th century. The dive into the heart of parliamentary action, incommittee, at the tribune or outside the parliament opens into a typology of Parliaments membersintervening about theatres. The theatrical matter is next considered in the mirror of parlementarismwhile the political instrumentation of debates about theatre is underlined through the many internaldigressions which affect them. Finally, the third part gets down to understanding the aesthetic andsocial concerns of the Parliament members in the 19th century towards the theatre life consideredunder a triple view point of repertory, authors and artists, thus suggesting a parliamentary history oftaste.

This thesis explores the embodied experiences of the rural population in nineteenth-century France. The prevailing historiography has treated rural bodily culture as a cultural survival swept away by ‘modernisation’ in the nineteenth century. By turning to the lives and words of rural labourers and artisans from the Landes de Gascogne, the thesis questions this account, instead showing ways that popular cultures of the body were flexible traditions, adapted by individuals to meet new needs. It does so through a close focus on the stories, songs, and other oral traditions collected by Félix Arnaudin (1844-1921) in the Grande-Lande between around 1870 and 1914. The thesis focuses on the lives of a few of Arnaudin’s 759 folklore informants, showing both how their bodily experiences were changing during this period, and how songs and stories were creative interventions, designed to shape bodily possibilities from below. The thesis draws attention to the surprising shape of rural experiences of the body, which focused on body parts such as the legs and skin for reasons specific to everyday life, while largely ignoring issues that historians might have assumed would be important, such as religion. It argues that the ordinary men and women who performed stories and sang songs were active agents in constructing their own bodies in response to material conditions of physical illness and disability, as well as a changing environment, changing class relations, or changing sexual norms in the Grande-Lande. The thesis presents an emotional and experiential view of rural bodies with a sensitivity to the different experiences of men and women, young and old, poorer and richer, but emphasizes that the body must be seen in the round, as a unifying concern that links together issues of social class, environmental change, sexual relations, work, disability, and religion.

Au prisme des caricatures que ses détracteurs en ont faites dès la Restauration, parées après les « Trois Glorieuses » des couleurs de la vérité, la cour des Bourbons de France serait à la fois nulle, anachronique et ridicule. Cette condamnation rétrospective empêche d'appréhender la centralité des institutions domestiques et de la société curiale dans la France de 1814 à 1830. Instrument de légitimation du principe héréditaire incarné par la dynastie régnante, vecteur d'exaltation de sa prééminence et de mise en scène d'une royauté sacrale, la cour de la Restauration se doit d'être étudiée d'un point de vue internaliste, qui en retrace la généalogie, les modalités de recréation et les logiques de structuration. Si elle reproduit les règles de fonctionnement identifiées par Norbert Elias comme caractéristiques de l'Ancien Régime, la société de cour restaurée s'en distingue par la prépondérance, dans l'intime familiarité des Bourbons, de fidèles purs. « Arche sainte de la légitimité » et sanctuaire des traditions royales, foyer d'oppositions anti-ministérielles et d'une résistance, couronnée de succès, à l'ordonnance de réforme du 1er novembre 1820, destinée à la « nationaliser », elle cristallise l'assimilation des courtisans à une coterie irrémédiablement étrangère au peuple de France et contraire à ses libertés. Désavouée, en 1844, par le prétendant légitimiste, la cour de la Restauration est liquidée dès 1830 par le roi des Français, rapidement contraint, cependant, de renouer avec certains de ses héritages en curialisant la monarchie de Juillet. / According to the caricatures its detractors produced from the time of the Restoration onwards, adorned with the colours of truth after "the Three Glorious" Days, the Bourbon Court of France would be nothing but anachronistic and ridiculous. This retrospective condemnation prevents from understanding the centrality of Royal Households and Court society in France between 1814 and 1830. As a means to legitimize the hereditary principle embodied by the ruling dynasty, glorify their prominence and stage the scenario of a sacred monarchy, the Restoration Court must be approached from an inner view which traces its roots, the terms of its recreation and its structuring logics. Although it replicates the rules defined by Norbert Elias as typical of the Old Regime, the restored Court society differs from them by the predominancy of courtiers depicted as pure followers within the close intimacy of the Bourbons. An « Ark of legitimacy », a sanctuary of royal traditions, and a center of oppositions to governments, the Court overcame its nationalization through the reform of November 1820, but hastened the assimilation of the courtiers into a coterie, irretrievably alien to the people of France and hostile to liberties. Disavowed by the legitimist pretender to the throne, the Restoration Court was liquidated as early as the year 1830 by the King of the French, who nevertheless had to quickly come to terms with some its legacies so as to create the national Court of the July Monarchy.