The Panzhihua intrusion is one of several large Fe-Ti oxide ore bearing intrusions related to the major flood volcanism of the Emeishan Large Igneous Province (ELIP), SW China. The Panzhihua intrusion in particular has recently become the focus of numerous studies owing to the excellent exposure in large open pit mining operations. The formation of Fe-Ti oxide ore layers has been the focus of these studies and has become a somewhat controversial topic with three separate models currently proposed for ore formation. The gabbroic Panzhihua intrusion extends for ± 19 km along strike, has a maximum thickness of 3000 m and hosts extensive (up to 60 m thick) Fe-Ti oxide ore layers in the lower portions of the intrusion. The intrusion has been divided into five zones: marginal zone (MGZ), lower zone (LZ), middle zone A (MZa), middle zone b (MZb) and the upper zone (UZ). The gabbroic rocks are comprised of plagioclase, clinopyroxene and interstitial Fe-Ti oxides with minor olivine. Apatite is present within the MZb only and shows no correlation with Fe-Ti oxide ore layers. Fe-Ti oxides are present throughout the stratigraphy of the intrusion. This is unlike typical layered intrusions where significant Fe-enrichment through fractionation of Fe-poor silicate phases (i.e. plagioclase) is required before Fe-Ti oxide saturation. There are no oxide-free cumulate rocks at the Panzhihua intrusion, implying either an evolved parent magma or very high Fe content of the source rocks. I present here new mineral composition data, whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry along with whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopes and PGEs in order to constrain the evolution of the Panzhihua parent magma en route from source to chamber and the formation of Fe-Ti oxide ore layers. Furthermore an initial pilot study using O-isotope data is conducted on Ti-magnetite and plagioclase separates from gabbroic vs. ore rocks. Results are coupled with detailed thermodynamic modeling using the software PELE in order to further constrain Fe-Ti oxide ore layer formation. The intrusion is characterised by extreme depletion of PGEs relative to the coeval flood basalts and picrites. High Cu/Pd and Pd/Pt imply two separate stages of S-saturated and S-undersaturated depletion of PGEs. Pd is highly compatible in sulphide and is quickly scavenged by sulphide liquids resulting in an increase in Cu/Pd of the residual liquid. Furthermore decoupling of Pd and Pt can be achieved by either late stage hydrothermal alteration or through S-undersaturated stage of PGE depletion where Pt is scavenged by Pt-rich alloys or oxide minerals. I show that the latter is more likely. Fractionation modeling suggests that the Panzhihua parent magma formed at depth from original picritic magma. This is consistent with several other recent studies on other layered intrusions of the ELIP. Sr-Nd isotopic ratios indicate very little crustal contamination has occurred en route to the current chamber. Sr and Nd concentrations of footwall rocks are too low to produce any significant change in initial Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of the intruding basaltic magmas, indicating that crustal contamination will not be indicated by Sr-Nd isotopic ratios. Gradational change in the Sr-Nd isotope ratios across the MGZ provides strong evidence for formation in an open system by multiple replenishments of progressively less contaminated magmas from depth. Contamination is difficult to constrain but must be occurring prior to emplacement at the current level (low Sr and Nd contents of footwall). A gradational upward decrease in highly incompatible element across the MGZ can then be explained by continuous magma flow, which effectively removes the evolved intercumulus liquids from the growing cumulate pile at the base of the chamber. The initial stages of formation of the Panzhihua intrusion are interpreted to result from prolonged low volume pulses of magma into a slowly opening chamber. The timing of Fe-Ti oxide crystallisation is fundamental in the understanding of the petrogenesis of ore layers. Distinct geochemical variation in whole-rock Fe2O3/TiO2 and Zr/Nb indicates that Timagnetite is the dominant oxide within the lower ± 270 m of the intrusion whereas above this level both Ti-magnetite and ilmenite are present as cumulus phases. This is interpreted to indicate a variation in the fO2 where the lower intrusion crystallises at higher fO2 relative to that above this level. Silicates within the ore layers, in particular plagioclase, are highly embayed and resorped where in contact with Fe-Ti oxides. This characteristic of the silicate grains implies early crystallisation prior to Fe-Ti oxides with subsequent disequilibrium conditions resulting in resorption. Furthermore distinct reaction rims of kaersutite amphibole, Fo-enriched olivine, An-enriched plagioclase and pleonaste are observed. The abundance of amphibole suggests H2O involvement in this reaction and consumption of silicates. A model for parent magma crystallisation at various H2O contents indicates that plagioclase crystallisation temperature is very sensitive to H2O content of the parent magma. Plagioclase crystallises early for “dry” compositions but significantly later for “wet” compositions. Fe-Ti oxide ore layers are generally well layered, contain gabbroic xenoliths and are observed raversing/cross-cutting the cumulate stratigraphy. I present here a new model for ore layer formation in order to account for these distinct features of the ore layers. A model invoking multiple replenishments of magma with variable oxide microphenocryst content, H2O content and volume is proposed. Magma evolving in the plumbing system and fed to the Panzhihua chamber is variably enriched in H2O, which results in significantly different crystallisation paths. High H2O magmas (> 2 wt %) crystallise Fe-Ti oxides early whereas low H2O magmas (< 1 wt %) crystallise oxides late. Early pulses of H2O-poor magma crystallise a sequence of plag+cpx+Fe-Ti oxide (±ol). Later pulses of H2Orich magma subsequently intrude the partially crystallised cumulate sequence incorporating and consuming previously crystallised silicates with subsequent early crystallisation of Ti-magnetite and formation of ore layers. H2O-rich magmas likely have suspended Ti-magnetite microphenocrysts as well, which crystallise at depth in the plumbing system. This model can account for the various characteristic features of the Fe-Ti oxide ore layers at the Panzhihua intrusion as well as other Fe-Ti oxide ore bearing intrusions in the region.

Agência Nacional do Petróleo / Na região de Lauro Müller, sul de Santa Catarina, a presença de óleo nos arenitos das formações Rio Bonito e Palermo foi observada em diversos poços e nas galerias de uma das minas da Carbonífera Catarinense. Amostras desse óleo foram submetidas às análises de isótopos estáveis de carbono e cromatografia gasosa espectrometria de massas visando, a princípio, identificar a sua origem. O óleo apresentou feições moleculares típicas de ambiente anóxico hipersalino, sendo correlacionado ao Membro Assistência da Formação Irati. Parâmetros moleculares revelaram que o mesmo foi gerado durante o pico de geração de hidrocarbonetos e encontra-se leve a moderadamente biodegradado. A comparação entre o óleo catarinense e os arenitos asfálticos de Anhembi (SP) revelou diferenças moleculares relacionadas à fácies orgânica, grau de evolução térmica e biodegradação. A geração do óleo no sul catarinense está intimamente relacionada ao efeito térmico das intrusões ígneas cretácicas sobre os intervalos geradores da Formação Irati, haja vista que a unidade encontra-se termicamente imatura na maior parte da bacia. O óleo teria migrado lateralmente da Formação Irati para os arenitos reservatório da Formação Rio Bonito através de falhas com rejeitos verticais superiores a 150 m, as quais foram identificadas em mapas e seções geológicas. Também foram realizadas análises de pirólise, isótopos de carbono e de biomarcadores em amostras da Formação Irati no poço CAT 204, realizado pela Carbonífera Catarinense, a fim de avaliar o efeito térmico de duas soleiras de diabásio intrudidas no Membro Assistência. Foi observado um aumento dos valores de &#948;13C em direção ao contato com as intrusivas e a completa senilização da unidade. O halo termal abaixo da soleira inferior se estendeu, pelo menos, até a base da Formação Irati, situada a uma distância de 1,4 vezes a espessura do corpo intrusivo. Amostras da parte inferior da Formação Palermo, coletadas no poço CAT 204, e das três principais camadas de carvão do sul catarinense, coletadas nas minas da Carbonífera Catarinense, também se encontram termicamente maturas, sugerindo a proximidade de outros corpos intrusivos. Dessa forma, conclui-se que deve ter havido um aquecimento generalizado dos sedimentos no sul de Santa Catarina causado pela grande incidência de soleiras na região. / In the region of Lauro Müller, south of Santa Catarina, the presence of oil in sandstones of Rio Bonito and Palermo formations were observed in several wells and in the galleries of a coal mine. Samples of oil were subjected to stable carbon isotopes and gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis to identify its origin. The oil had typical features of a hypersaline anoxic environment, achieving a positive correlation with Assistência Member of Irati Formation. Molecular parameters revealed that it was generated during the peak of hydrocarbon generation and is light to moderately biodegraded. The comparison between oil encountered in Lauro Müller and the tar sands of Anhembi (SP) revealed molecular differences related to organic facies, level of biodegradation and thermal maturity. The generation of oil in southern Santa Catarina is closely related to the thermal effect of igneous intrusions in the source rocks of Irati formation, given that the unit is thermally immature in most of the basin. The oil would have migrated laterally from Irati Formation to the reservoir sandstones of Rio Bonito Formation through faults with vertical slips over 150 m, identified on maps and geological sections. Pyrolysis, stable carbons isotopes and biomarkers analysis was also performed in a local section of Irati Formation to evaluate the heating effect of two dolerite sills intruded into Assistência Member. It was observed an increase in &#948;13C toward the intrusive contacts and that Assistência Member was completely overmature. The thermal halo below the lower sill reached, at least, the bottom of the Irati Formation, located at a distance of 1.4 times the thickness of the intrusive body. Samples from the lower portion of Palermo Formation, collected in the well CAT 204, and the three main coal layers from southern Santa Catarina, collected in Carbonífera Catarinenses mines, are also thermally mature, suggesting the proximity of other intrusive bodies. Thus, it is concluded that there was a general heating of the sediments of southern Santa Catarina caused by the high incidence of igneous intrusions in the region.

Agência Nacional do Petróleo / Na região de Lauro Müller, sul de Santa Catarina, a presença de óleo nos arenitos das formações Rio Bonito e Palermo foi observada em diversos poços e nas galerias de uma das minas da Carbonífera Catarinense. Amostras desse óleo foram submetidas às análises de isótopos estáveis de carbono e cromatografia gasosa espectrometria de massas visando, a princípio, identificar a sua origem. O óleo apresentou feições moleculares típicas de ambiente anóxico hipersalino, sendo correlacionado ao Membro Assistência da Formação Irati. Parâmetros moleculares revelaram que o mesmo foi gerado durante o pico de geração de hidrocarbonetos e encontra-se leve a moderadamente biodegradado. A comparação entre o óleo catarinense e os arenitos asfálticos de Anhembi (SP) revelou diferenças moleculares relacionadas à fácies orgânica, grau de evolução térmica e biodegradação. A geração do óleo no sul catarinense está intimamente relacionada ao efeito térmico das intrusões ígneas cretácicas sobre os intervalos geradores da Formação Irati, haja vista que a unidade encontra-se termicamente imatura na maior parte da bacia. O óleo teria migrado lateralmente da Formação Irati para os arenitos reservatório da Formação Rio Bonito através de falhas com rejeitos verticais superiores a 150 m, as quais foram identificadas em mapas e seções geológicas. Também foram realizadas análises de pirólise, isótopos de carbono e de biomarcadores em amostras da Formação Irati no poço CAT 204, realizado pela Carbonífera Catarinense, a fim de avaliar o efeito térmico de duas soleiras de diabásio intrudidas no Membro Assistência. Foi observado um aumento dos valores de &#948;13C em direção ao contato com as intrusivas e a completa senilização da unidade. O halo termal abaixo da soleira inferior se estendeu, pelo menos, até a base da Formação Irati, situada a uma distância de 1,4 vezes a espessura do corpo intrusivo. Amostras da parte inferior da Formação Palermo, coletadas no poço CAT 204, e das três principais camadas de carvão do sul catarinense, coletadas nas minas da Carbonífera Catarinense, também se encontram termicamente maturas, sugerindo a proximidade de outros corpos intrusivos. Dessa forma, conclui-se que deve ter havido um aquecimento generalizado dos sedimentos no sul de Santa Catarina causado pela grande incidência de soleiras na região. / In the region of Lauro Müller, south of Santa Catarina, the presence of oil in sandstones of Rio Bonito and Palermo formations were observed in several wells and in the galleries of a coal mine. Samples of oil were subjected to stable carbon isotopes and gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis to identify its origin. The oil had typical features of a hypersaline anoxic environment, achieving a positive correlation with Assistência Member of Irati Formation. Molecular parameters revealed that it was generated during the peak of hydrocarbon generation and is light to moderately biodegraded. The comparison between oil encountered in Lauro Müller and the tar sands of Anhembi (SP) revealed molecular differences related to organic facies, level of biodegradation and thermal maturity. The generation of oil in southern Santa Catarina is closely related to the thermal effect of igneous intrusions in the source rocks of Irati formation, given that the unit is thermally immature in most of the basin. The oil would have migrated laterally from Irati Formation to the reservoir sandstones of Rio Bonito Formation through faults with vertical slips over 150 m, identified on maps and geological sections. Pyrolysis, stable carbons isotopes and biomarkers analysis was also performed in a local section of Irati Formation to evaluate the heating effect of two dolerite sills intruded into Assistência Member. It was observed an increase in &#948;13C toward the intrusive contacts and that Assistência Member was completely overmature. The thermal halo below the lower sill reached, at least, the bottom of the Irati Formation, located at a distance of 1.4 times the thickness of the intrusive body. Samples from the lower portion of Palermo Formation, collected in the well CAT 204, and the three main coal layers from southern Santa Catarina, collected in Carbonífera Catarinenses mines, are also thermally mature, suggesting the proximity of other intrusive bodies. Thus, it is concluded that there was a general heating of the sediments of southern Santa Catarina caused by the high incidence of igneous intrusions in the region.

Lead isotope compositions have been obtained from five major volcanic and intrusive rock suites and several ore deposits on Vancouver Island. Lead, uranium and thorium concentrations and strontium isotope ratios have been obtained for a subset of these samples. The rock suites examined are the Paleozoic Sicker Group, Triassic Karmutsen Formation, Jurassic Island Intrusions and Bonanza Group volcanic rocks, and the Eocene Catface intrusions. Isotope geochemistry of the Sicker Group is consistent with the interpretation that it formed as an island arc. Relatively high 207pb/204pb ratios indicate sediment involvement in the subduction process, which suggests that the Sicker Group formed close to a continent. Buttle Lake ore deposits display decreasingly radiogenic lead isotope ratios with time, suggesting that the associated magmas become increasingly primitive. This supports the hypothesis that these deposits formed during the establishment of rifting in a back-arc environment. Karmutsen Formation flood basalts display isotopic mixing between an ocean island-type mantle source and average crust. Isotopic evidence is used to support a Northern Hemisphere origin for these basalts. Mixing is apparent in the lead and strontium isotope signatures of the Island Intrusions and Bonanza Group volcanic rocks, between depleted mantle and crustal (possibly trench sediments) components. This is consistent with formation of these rocks in an island arc environment. Eocene Catface intrusions have relatively high 207pb/204pb indicating that crustal material was involved in their formation. There are two groups of plutons corresponding to an east belt and west belt classification. Galena from the Zeballos mining camp related to the Eocene Zeballos pluton indicates that the mineralization was derived from the pluton. Galena lead isotope data from Vancouver Island may be interpreted in a general way by comparison with data from deposits elsewhere of known age and origin. No single growth curve model can be applied. Lead isotope characteristics of Vancouver Island are clearly different from those of the North American craton, reflecting the oceanic affinities of this terrane. A new technique has been developed to compare 207pb/204pb ratios between samples with differing 206pb/204pb ratios. The procedure projects 207pb/204pb ratios along suitable isochrons until they intersect a reference value of 206pb/204pb. This technique can be used for interpreting lead isotope data from old terranes, in which lead and uranium may have undergone loss or gain, and if lead and uranium abundances have not been measured. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

Denna rapport undersöker grundvattenmagasin på öar i Stockholms skärgård och hur de förväntas påverkas av klimatförändringarna. Främst granskas grundvattnets kvantitet och kvalitet fram till år 2100 utifrån två olika klimatscenarion framtagna av FN:s klimatpanel. Detta kopplas sedan till hur boende på ön kan komma att påverkas av dessa förändringar samt hur de kan hantera de problem som förväntas uppstå. Vidare undersöks kommuners roll samt lösningar de kan bidra med. Ämnet kopplar till det svenska miljömålet ”Grundvatten av god kvalitet” som betonar vikten av kunskap om dagens grundvattenstånd i utsatta områden, till vilka kustnära regioner tillhör.  För att besvara frågorna som ställts i rapporten har bland annat litteraturstudie, fältstudie, intervjuer, modelleringar av månadsvisa grundvattenstånd samt beräkningar av risk för saltvatteninträngning i brunnar tillämpats. Fältstudien gjordes på Aspö, en typisk skärgårdsö i Stockholm, för vilken sedan all modellering och beräkningar utförts på. Aspö fungerar därför i denna rapport som modell för Stockholms skärgårdsöar.  I modelleringar och beräkningar har aspekter som vattenanvändning, geologi, nederbörd, evapotranspiration och växtperiodens längd beaktats. Resultatet från modelleringarna tyder på stora risker för sinande grundvattenmagasin på skärgårdsöar under sommarmånaderna, både i dagsläget och i framtiden. Under sommaren är grundvattenbildningen liten till obefintlig och vattenanvändningen som störst, på grund av den stora mängd sommarboende i skärgården, vilket kan leda till vattenbrist och vattenkvalitetsproblem. På grund av en förlängd växtperiod som hämmar grundvattenbildningen förväntas dessa problem bli värre i framtiden. Vad gäller beräkningarna av saltvatteninträngning är det brunnar i strandnära lägen som löper störst risk. Eftersom en höjning av havsnivån förväntas till följd av ökad medeltemperatur, förväntas risken för saltvatteninträngning öka än mer i framtiden.  Både modelleringarna och beräkningarna tyder på att en sparsam vattenanvändning gör situationen mindre ansträngd. Utöver detta föreslås att kommunen utvidgar kartläggningen av riskområden med hjälp av lagstöd för att ta över delar av ansvaret som idag främst vilar på fastighetsägaren för den enskilda vattentäkten. / This thesis examines groundwater reservoirs of islands in the Stockholm archipelago and  how they will be affected by climate change. Mainly the quality and quantity of reservoirs in the year 2100 are looked at based on two different climate scenarios developed by IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). That gets connected to how the inhabitants on the islands will be affected by the changes and how they can deal with the potential problems that arises. Furthermore, the municipalities’ roles will be examined along with the solutions they can contribute with regarding water shortage. The subject of the thesis also connects to the Swedish environmental goal “Good-Quality Groundwater” which puts an emphasis on the importance of knowledge regarding groundwater levels in exposed areas such as coastal regions.  To answer the questions posed in the thesis, methods such as literature review, field study, interviews, modeling of monthly groundwater level and calculations of the risk of saltwater intrusions in wells have been applied. The field study was done on the island Aspö, a typical archipelago island in Stockholm, for which all the modelling and calculations later have been made. Thus, Aspö acts as a model of Stockholm’s archipelago islands in this thesis.  In the modelling and calculations factors like water usage, geology, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and the length of the growing season have been considered. The results of the groundwater modelling indicate a great risk of diminishing groundwater reservoirs on archipelago islands during the summer months, both now and in the future. In the summer the groundwater recharge is little to nonexistent and the water usage at its peak, due to the large quantity of summer occupants in the archipelago, which can lead to a water shortage and problems with the water quality. Because of a prolonged growing season that disturbs the groundwater recharge, these issues are expected to become worse in the future. When it comes to the calculations of the saltwater intrusions in wells, the wells closest to the coasts are at a greater risk. Since an increase in the sea level are to be expected due to a rise in global temperature the risk for saltwater intrusion also increases.  Both the modelling and the calculations indicates that a sparing water usage will make the situation less strained. In addition, it’s suggested that the municipalities should expand their mapping of sensitive areas through legal support to shoulder some of the responsibility that today rests on property owners of the individual water supply.

Cone-sheet swarms are magmatic sheet intrusions and part of volcanic plumbing systems and are pathways for magma to the Earth’s surface, where they feed volcanic eruptions. The analysis of cone-sheets provides information on the geometry of the magmatic plumbing system of a volcano and allows to understand processes and dynamics of magma transport. This is important to interpret information during a volcanic crisis and to help reduce risks to humans and infrastructure. In order to create a realistic model, the structure and shape of cone-sheet complexes can be reconstructed in three-dimensional space. Most cone-sheet swarms are not sufficiently exposed to allow such a reconstruction. The Tejeda cone-sheet swarm on Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), however, is an excellent location to study a cone-sheet complex in great detail, as it is exposed over 15 kmhorizontally and 1000 m vertically. This allows to determine its geometry in 3D space. The felsic deposits of the Miocene Tejeda caldera were intruded by cone-sheets between 11.7 and 7.3 Ma. Schirnick et al. (1999) assumed straight cone-sheets, based on 2D projections, and suggested that the Tejeda cone-sheet swarm is formed by a stack of uniformly dipping, parallel intrusive sheets that converge towards a common, static, laccolith-like source, forming a concentric structure around acentral axis that has the geometry of a truncated cone. This hypothesis was tested in this study, using structural data from Schirnick (1996) as well as additional data collected in the field. Using the software Move™, the extensive data set was visualized and projected in three dimensional space. The underlying magmatic source of the cone-sheets was reconstructed using two different approaches, with the first one based on sets of cross-sections to select intersection points, following an approach prognosed by Burchardt et al. (2013a). To improve the quality of the reconstruction of the magma chamber, a second method was developed using geometric calculations in MATLAB. The results indicate that individual cone-sheets are straight with parallel to slightly fanning dips, which can be steeper in the central part of the cone-sheet complex. They converge towards a common centre, creating a sub-spherical geometry of the source of the cone-sheet complex. Comparison of the two approaches used for the magma chamber reconstruction indicate that the second approach (geometric calculations) produces less uncertainties in data interpretation. The modelling results lead to the proposition of a dynamic model for the emplacement of the Tejeda cone-sheet complex. Cone-sheets would start to intrude from a reservoir situated at about 4500m below sea level that became successively shallower with time. / Inverterade koniska intrusionssvärmar är en del av det underjordiska vulkaniska systemet som möjliggör vägar för magma till jordens yta, där de livnär vulkaniska utbrott. Genom analys av inverterade koniska intrusioner kan information om geometrin hos magmatiska system erhållas vilket gör det möjligt att förstå magmans processer och transportdynamik. Detta är viktigt då det hjälper att tolka information under vulkaniska kriser och kan bidra till att minska risker för människor och infrastruktur. För att skapa en realistisk modell, kan strukturer och former av komplexa inverterade koniska intrusionssvärmar rekonstrueras i ett tredimensionellt utrymme. De flesta inverterade koniska intrusionssvärmar är inte tillräckligt blottade på jordens yta för att möjliggöra en sådan rekonstruktion.Tejedas inverterade koniska intrusionssvärm på Gran Canaria (Kanarieöarna, Spanien) är dock utmärktbelägen för att studera ett inverterat koniskt intrusionskomplex i detalj, detta då den är blottad i över 15 km horisontell och 1000 m i vertikal utsträckning. Detta gör det möjligt att bestämma dess geometrii tre dimensioner. De felsiska avlagringarna av den Miocena Tejeda kalderan blev intruderade av inverterade koniskaintrusioner mellan 11,7 och 7,3 Ma. Schirnick et al. (1999) antog att dessa intrusioner var raka, baseratpå 2D-projektioner, och föreslog att Tejedas inverterade koniska intrusionssvärm bildades som enlikformigt stupande stapel av parallella intruderande plan som konvergerar mot en gemensam, statiskoch lakkolitisk källa, vilken i sin tur bildar en koncentrisk struktur runt en central axel med samma geometri som en inverterad stympad kon. Denna hypotes undersöktes i detta arbete, med hjälp avstrukturell data från Schirnick (1996) samt ytterligare data insamlat från fält. Den omfattande datamängden visualiserades och projicerades i tre dimensioner med hjälp av mjukvaran Move™. Denunderliggande magmatiska källan till det inverterade koniska intrusionskomplexet rekonstruerades medhjälp av två olika metoder, den första är baserad på tvärsnitt där planens skärningspunkter kan studeras, följt av ett tillvägagångssätt framställt av Burchardt et al. (2013a). För att förbättra kvalitén pårekonstruktionen av magmakammaren utvecklades en andra metod med hjälp av geometriskaberäkningar i MATLAB. Resultaten tyder på att enskilda inverterade koniska intrusioner är raka med parallellt till svagt flacktstupning, vilka kan vara brantare mot den centrala delen av komplexet. De konvergerar mot ettgemensamt centrum, vilket skapar en sub-sfärisk geometri hos källan till det inverterade koniskaintrusionskomplexet. Jämförelse av de två metoderna som används för magmakammarens rekonstruktion tyder på att denandra metoden (geometriska beräkningar) ger färre osäkerheter i tolkningen. Modelleringsresultatettyder på en dynamisk modell för bildningen av Tejedas inverterade koniska intrusionskomplex. Enligtdessa resultat skulle de inverterade koniska intrusionerna till en början ha utgått från en reservoarungefär 4500 m under havsytan som med tiden förflyttade sig mot grundare nivåer.

Thèse numérisée par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Le Massif composite du Tichka a été étudié dans le but de préciser les mécanismes de sa formation, pour les raisons suivantes : il offre une coupe verticale de 2500m avec une qualité exceptionnelle d'affleurements qui permet de faire des observations et des échantillonnages en continu ; il montre une gamme de composition allant des gabbros aux leucogranites avec des relations spectaculaires entre les diorites et les granitoïdes contemporains. Les études de terrain, pétrographiques, minéralogiques, géochimiques, isotopiques (Sr et Nd) ont été utilisées pour mieux cerner sa genèse. De plus, l'étude des structures magmatiques et des propriétés rhéologiques des magmas a permis de mieux comprendre le mode d'ascension et de mise place du pluton. Le modèle génétique ainsi proposé peut être appliqué à d'autres associations plutoniques comparables, d'âges et d'environnements géotectoniques variés. Le Massif du Tichka s'est mis en place il y a 291 ± 5 Ma (isochrone Rb-Sr sur roches totales) dans des séries cambriennes au Nord de l'accident du Tizi n'Test (N70), branche de la faille Sud-Atlasique. La profondeur de cette mise en place a été estimée, par barométrie sur les amphiboles des plutonites, à 7 km environ, en accord (1) avec les estimations des épaisseurs de la pile sédimentaire encaissante et (2) avec les conditions thermobarométriques de développement des minéraux, par métamorphisme de contact, à proximité immédiate du pluton. Sur l'ensemble du massif, cinq groupes de roches ont été identifiés sur la base de critères de terrain, pétrographiques et géochimiques : gabbros, diorites (subdivisées en méladiorites, diorites communes et diorites hétérogènes), granodiorites-tonalites, monzogranites, leucogranites (subdivisés en leucogranites à biotite ± amphibole et leucogranites à deux micas). Toutes ces roches, mis à part les leucogranites à deux micas plus jeunes, sont contemporaines. L'étude des structures acquises' à l'état magmatique montre que: (1) le complexe est constitué de trois intrusions composites, à géométrie bien définie, sub - contemporaines, limitées au Sud par des écrans d'encaissant méta-volcanosédimentaire, et d'une intrusion de leucogranites à deux micas, localisée dans le Nord-Est, légèrement plus tardive et à géométrie mal définie; (2) la source magmatique a migré au cours du temps du Sud-Ouest vers le Nord-Est; (3) le mouvement de la composante décrochante dextre de l'accident du Tizi n'Test était -relativement faible par rapport à la composante inverse au moment de la mise en place; (4) les parties internes du massif montaient plus vite que, les parties externes lors de l'ascension des intrusions; (5) l'intrusion de leucogranites à deux micas, la plus récente, est constituée de petits corps diapiriques rassemblés autour du diapir kilométrique du Tasghimout; elle s'est mise en place alors que les autres intrusions étaient déjà cristallisées mais pas entièrement refroidies. Les études pétrographiques, minéralogiques, géochimiques, isotopiques (Sr et Nd) ont permis de proposer le type de genèse suivant: deux magmas basiques issus du manteau sous-continental par des taux de fusion différents, se mettent en place successivement en base de croûte. Le premier cristallise rapidement en évoluant peu et pratiquement sans contamination; il donnera le groupe des gabbros. Le second est soumis à un processus complexe qui allie cristallisation fractionnée et contamination (AFC) par la croûte. Il formera le groupe des diorites. La montée de ces magmas et de l'anomalie thermique qui les accompagne induit la fusion de la base de la croûte de nature hétérogène et litée. Cette croûte a été injectée de magmas basiques à intermédiaires peu de temps avant sa fusion. Son anatexie génère des magmas de composition granodioritique et monzogranitique. Le magma monzogranitique évolue par cristallisation fractionnée jusqu'à des leucogranites à biotite ± amphibole. Les magmas dioritique et granodioritique sont rassemblés à la profondeur de 15 à 20 km dans une chambre magmatique où une stratification est obtenue par convection et instabilité gravitaire et où des échanges entre les magmas, qui commencent à cristalliser, ont probablement eu lieu mais de façon limitée. Les leucogranites à deux micas qui forment l'essentiel de l'intrusion Nord-Est sont des granites de type S formés par anatexie de la croûte supérieure. Ils se mettent en place tardivement alors que le bâti avait un comportement cassant. La fin de l'activité magmatique est marquée par une activité hydrothermale localisée et par la mise en place de filons doléritiques. Le Massif du Tichka est de type calédonien post collision; les roches basiques qui le composent ont des caractères de basaltes intraplaques continentales plus précisément transitionnels et les granitoïdes ont des traits de granites post-collision. L'association du Tichka est de, type cafémique métalumineuse, transitionnelle à tendance suba1caline sodique. Les leucogranites à deux micas appartiennent au domaine alumino-potassique. Les calculs des densités et des viscosités des magmas montrent que (1) leur montée a pu se faire sous forme diapirique, (2) le magma dioritique a une viscosité plus faible (104 poises) que le magma granodioritique (106 poises) et (3) les viscosités peuvent s'inverser au cours de la cristallisation vers des températures de 850°C. L'évolution des viscosités au cours du refroidissement et l'inversion de leur courbe, permettent d'expliquer toutes les figures observées aux interfaces entre les diorites et les granodiorites synchrones. L'accident du Tizi n'Test (de direction N70) et, dans une moindre mesure, la zone faillée ouest-atlasique (subméridienne), à proximité desquels le Massif du Tichka s'est mis en place, ont joué un rôle important dans la genèse du pluton. Le premier a permis, en effet, par décompression adiabatique et introduction d'eau, la fusion du manteau et a facilité la montée des magmas basiques. Cette genèse est intracontinentale dans un bloc émergé (ou presque) depuis le Tournaisien ; elle se déroulerait dans cette période charnière entre la collision (épaississement) continentale carbonifère et la distension permienne. Par son histoire complexe impliquant des intrusions emboîtées multiples, des sources magmatiques nombreuses, des processus de genèse variés, le Massif du Tichka présente des affinités avec d'autres massifs hercyniens au Maroc ou ailleurs dans la chaîne varisque ouest européenne.

C'est a l'échelle de la turbulence que se produit l'entraînement d'air sec du flux d'Harmattan a l'intérieur du flux humide de Mousson. Ce processus de petite échelle est analysé dans le cadre du programme AMMA (Analyse Multidisciplinaires de la Mousson Africaine) qui vise a mieux renseigner et prévoir la mousson de l'Afrique de l'ouest. Les mesures atmosphériques réalisées par l'avion de recherche français ATR-42 et la modélisation des grands tourbillons (LES) sont complémentaires et permettent de documenter la structure verticale, moyenne et turbulente de la couche limite Sahélienne, de d'écrire les intrusions d'air sec et leur contribution dans les transferts turbulents, de quantifier le processus d'entraînement, de tester les paramétrisations existantes et de les relier aux conditions de grande échelle, et aux caractéristiques de la couche limite et de ses interfaces, notamment du cisaillement de vent Mousson/Harmattan.

We develop a two dimensional model that simulates the response of the crust to prolonged mantle-derived intrusions in arc environments. The domain includes the entire crustal section and upper mantle and focuses on the evolving thermal structure due to intrusions and external tectonic forcing. We monitor the thermal response, melt fraction and volume for different environments after a definite time by considering geologically relevant melt flux and extensional tectonic rates. The amount of crustal melt versus fractionated primary mantle melts present in the crustal column helps determine crustal structure and growth through time. We observe that with a geophysically estimated flux and tectonic rate, the mantle-derived magma bodies can melt the surrounding volume of crust. We express the amount of crustal melting in terms of an efficiency; therefore we define the melting efficiency as the ratio of the melted volume of crustal material to the volume of melt expected from a strict enthalpy balance as explained by Dufek and Bergantz (2005). Melting efficiencies are less than 1.0 in real systems because heat diffuses to sections of the crust that never melt. The maximum calculated efficiency is 0.05 in our model while most of our simulations show zero efficiency. Additionally, maximum total melt amount is observed in relatively greater extensional environments (0.02 m/yr) and high intrusion rates (10⁻² m³/m²/yr) and in long time periods (2 x 10⁶ years). However, maximum crustal melting in the same environment is reached in 1.2 x 10⁶ years. The relative amounts of mantle-derived and crustal melts in the total volume of magma suggest that the majority of magma composition in crustal column is derived from the mantle material.